This resource was updated as part of the veterinary review process. It was originally published on April 3, 2018.
Unfortunately for the humans looking out for them, ducksUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated duck breeds, not wild ducks, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource. tend to hide signs of illness and injury until they are no longer able to do so. Therefore, in order to catch and respond to health issues as early as possible, you’ll need to spend a lot of time observing and getting to know your residents so you are better able to catch less obvious signs of concern. Additionally, by conducting regular full-body health checks, you’ll be able to learn what healthy looks and feels (and smells!) like and will be more likely to catch issues early on. Be sure to read our guide to duck health checks to familiarize yourself with the signs that something may be amiss with a duckUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated duck breeds, not wild ducks, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource. resident. For more information on health challenges that commonly affect ducklingsYoung ducks, check out our resource here.
Issues By Body System Affected
Circulatory System: Duck Virus Enteritis (Duck Plague), Heat Exhaustion
Gastrointestinal System: Coccidiosis, Candidiasis (Sour Crop), Crop Impaction, Duck Virus Enteritis (Duck Plague), Fowl Cholera, Heavy Metal Toxicosis, Newcastle Disease, Worms
Musculoskeletal System: Angel Wing (Carpal Valgus), Arthritis, Bumblefoot, Frostbite, Gout, Mycoplasmosis, Osteomyelitis
Nervous System: Botulism, Duck Virus Enteritis (Duck Plague), Heavy Metal Toxicosis, Newcastle Disease, Riemerella Anatipestifer Infection, West Nile Virus
Reproductive System: Avian Influenza, Cloacal Prolapse, Cystic Oviduct, Duck Virus Enteritis (Duck Plague), Egg Binding (Egg-Bound), Egg Yolk Peritonitis/ Coelomitis, Internal Laying, Newcastle Disease, Reproductive Tract Cancer, Soft-Shelled Eggs, Testicular Tumors
Respiratory System: Aspergillosis, Avian Influenza, Fowl Cholera, Mycoplasmosis, Newcastle Disease, Riemerella Anatipestifer Infection
Urinary System: Coccidiosis, Gout
Integumentary System: Frostbite, Lice, Mites, Wet Feather
Sensory System: Fowl Cholera
Angel Wing (Carpal Valgus)
The term “angel wing” refers to carpal valgus deformity, a not uncommon condition where a bird’s wing (or wings) droops and then rotates outward. In addition to the term “angel wing,” there are a host of other descriptive terms used to describe this condition, including “slipped wing,” “crooked wing,” and “airplane wing.” Primarily affecting growing individuals, angel wing is the result of new feathers developing faster than the musculoskeletal structures necessary to support them. The weight of these new feathers causes the joint to twist. As a result, the affected wing tip(s) is not able to be tucked into a normal position against the body (and when both wings are affected, they may resemble the wings of an airplane or angel, hence some of the common terms for this condition).
While there are several factors that may contribute to the development of angel wing, nutritional factors, namely high levels of protein and carbohydrates, are a common cause. Genetics, incubation and hatching issues, as well as restricted exercise, may also be contributing factors. When caught very early, angel wing can be corrected, but you should consult with a veterinarian to make sure you are taking appropriate corrective measures (while also addressing the underlying cause, if applicable). While bandages and splints are often used to correct angel wing, you must be shown how to do this correctly, as improper technique can have unintended consequences. If not caught early, before the bones have mineralized, the condition will be permanent. While permanent disfiguration of the wing(s) is detrimental in free-living birds since it prevents them from being able to fly, sanctuary residents can live a happy, healthy life with the condition.
If a resident starts showing signs of angel wing, be sure to consult with your veterinarian immediately, both to determine if the condition is correctable and also to determine the underlying cause. If you welcome a new duck resident who shows signs of angel wing, consult with your veterinarian to determine if interventions are appropriate or if the condition is permanent. Birds with severe angel wing may need modifications to their living spaceThe indoor or outdoor area where an animal resident lives, eats, and rests. to prevent them from injuring the affected wing (for example, making sure entryways are wide enough for them to fit through without hitting their wing).†
SOURCES:
Angel Wing | Blackwell’s Five-Minute Veterinary Consult: Avian
Treating Angel Wing Deformity: A Sling For The Wing | Today’s Veterinary Practice
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Arthritis
Ducks can develop various mobility issues, including osteoarthritis (also called degenerative joint disease) and septic arthritis (also called infectious arthritis).
Osteoarthritis – This type of arthritis is often associated with advanced age, though it can occur in younger individuals as well, especially bigger breeds or individuals who are overweight. Signs of osteoarthritis include abnormal gaitA specific way of moving and the rhythmic patterns of hooves and legs. Gaits are natural (walking, trotting, galloping) or acquired meaning humans have had a hand in changing their gaits for "sport"., bearing weight unevenly when standing, lameness, and reduced activity. You may be able to hear or feel crepitus (grating or crunching) in the hock1: the tarsal joint or region in the hind limb of a digitigrade quadruped (such as the horse) corresponding to the human ankle but elevated and bending backward 2: a joint of a fowl's leg that corresponds to the hock of a quadruped (this can be more difficult to feel in the knee and hip). Ducks with osteoarthritis may spend more time lying down. Preventative measures include ensuring residents are on a healthy diet (and are at a healthy weight) and also ensuring residents have ample opportunities to swim. Treatment with analgesics and creating a living space that is easy for arthritic individuals to navigate can help keep residents comfortable.
Septic Arthritis – Septic arthritis is inflammation of the joint(s) due to introduction of an infectious agent, which may result following septicemia or a localized infection of the joint. In some cases, the joint may be red, swollen, hot, and possibly open and oozing. However, in other cases, there may not be obvious outward signs of infection, such as heat or significant swelling, and the individual may look like they have a non-infectious mobility issue. Be sure to work closely with your veterinarian if a resident is showing signs of mobility issues and to discuss the possibility of septic arthritis. While your veterinarian may decide to tap the joint during their physical evaluation, this should not be attempted by anyone other than a veterinary professional – doing so could introduce bacteria into the joint and/or damage the internal structures of the joint, causing further issues. A veterinary diagnosis is imperative. Caregivers sometimes confuse clinical signs of gout with infection, and the two conditions require different treatments, so be sure to work closely with your veterinarian.
Septic arthritis can be difficult to treat and typically requires prolonged systemic antibiotic treatment along with analgesics. Regional limb perfusion or the use of antibiotic-soaked gauze or impregnated beads may be recommended to deliver the antibiotics to the infected joint. Septic arthritis can cause permanent joint damage and predispose the individual to degenerative joint disease. Even following resolution of the infection, the individual may continue to have mobility issues and may require ongoing analgesics.†
SOURCES:
Geriatric Diseases of Pet Birds | Merck Veterinary Manual
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Waterfowl Medicine | M. Scott Echols DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice) The Medical Center for Birds Oakley, CA (Non-Compassionate Source)
Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis is a non-contagious fungal disease that typically manifests as respiratory illness in birds. While there are numerous species of Aspergillusany of a genus (Aspergillus) of ascomycetous fungi with branched radiate sporophores including many common molds, Aspergillus fumigatus, a ubiquitous soil fungus, is the most common cause in chickens, turkeysUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated turkey breeds, not wild turkeys, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource., ducks, and geeseUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated goose breeds, not wild geese, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource.. Aspergillosis is an opportunistic infection – while birds are constantly exposed to fungal spores, often without developing disease, immunosuppression (such as from stress, corticosteroid use, disease, or malnutrition) and being exposed to large numbers of aerosolized spores may result in disease. Poor ventilation, unsanitary conditions, wet bedding, moldy food, and warm, humid conditions increase the risk of aspergillosis. Therefore, you can help protect your residents by properly storing food, keeping living spaces clean and well ventilated, and ensuring spaces do not become warm and humid. Straw bedding can harbor mold and fungus, so wood shavings or other non-straw (and non-hay) bedding is a better option if aspergillosis is a concern.
Aspergillosis typically causes acute signs in young birds (often called “brooder pneumonia”) and a more chronic condition in older birds. Signs of aspergillosis include open-mouth breathing, labored breathing, tail bobbing, gasping, and an elevated respiratory rate. Other signs include inappetence and lethargy. Be sure to contact your veterinarian if you suspect aspergillosis. Diagnosis can be challenging, so be sure to work with your veterinarian to see what diagnostics they recommend. Treatment is also challenging and often requires aggressive and prolonged antifungal treatment (such as with itraconazole) as well as supportive care. In addition to treatment, be sure to take steps to reduce your residents’ exposure to spores by keeping living spaces dry, ensuring food and bedding are not wet or moldy, switching from straw to a safer bedding option, and improving ventilation.*
SOURCES:
Aspergillosis | Niles Animal Hospital And Bird Medical Center
Current Therapy In Avian Medicine And Surgery | Brian L. Speer
Diseases Of Poultry 13th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Avian Influenza (Or, “Bird Flu”)
The term “avian influenza” refers to any disease or infection in birds that is caused by Type A influenza viruses. Free-flying aquatic birds (such as migratory waterfowl and shorebirds) are the natural host of Type A influenza viruses, but these viruses can also affect domesticatedAdapted over time (as by selective breeding) from a wild or natural state to life in close association with and to the benefit of humans farmed birds and other bird species. To read more about avian influenza (AI), check out our resource here.
Botulism
Botulism is more common in waterfowl than in other farmed bird species. It is caused by ingestion of neurotoxins produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum. While this bacterium is found in the environment without causing issues, under certain conditions, the bacteria multiply and produce toxins. Common sources of these toxins are decaying vegetation and carcasses, as well as maggots feeding on decaying matter. Signs of botulism include progression from weakness to flaccid paralysis of legs, wings, neck, and eyelids. Botulism is sometimes called “limberneck” due to the neck paralysis associated with the disease. The feathers on the neck may also become loose and come out easily.
The time between ingestion of the neurotoxin and onset of clinical signs, as well as the severity of those signs, is dependent on the amount of toxin ingested. High doses of toxin can result in clinical signs developing within hours, whereas clinical signs may take a few days to develop if lower doses are ingested. High levels of the toxin are lethal, resulting in respiratory paralysis.
Treatment includes prompt administration of antitoxin and supportive care. If botulism is suspected, in addition to seeking urgent veterinary care, it is important to identify the source of the toxin and prevent residents from further access. Prevention includes keeping residents away from decaying foods and carcasses, ensuring they have ready access to fresh food and water, and keeping swimming water safe by aerating small bodies of water and regularly changing swimming water provided in pools or tubs.*
SOURCES:
Botulism In Poultry | Poultry Extension
Botulism In Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Waterfowl Medicine | M. Scott Echols DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice) The Medical Center for Birds Oakley, CA (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Bumblefoot
Bumblefoot can affect all breeds of ducks, but is especially common in bigger breeds. Bumblefoot can be caused by many different factors, including environmental conditions (such as poor sanitation, rough or hard flooring, or not having water for swimming) or physical conditions (such as obesity or arthritis). Individuals who favor one foot over the other, due to pain or a mechanical leg issue, may develop bumblefoot on their “good” side. Because this foot has to bear more weight, the skin can become damaged over time. Without proper interventions, bumblefoot can progress from a minor issue to something far more severe.
Bumblefoot is typically categorized as mild, moderate, or severe, with severe cases involving infection in the bone (osteomyelitisan infectious usually painful inflammatory disease of bone often of bacterial origin that may result in the death of bone tissue.). The following 1-5 grading system gives a good overview of the progression of this disease and how it affects the overall prognosis, but be aware that your veterinarian may use a different grading system to evaluate and talk about bumblefoot.
Grade 1– At this stage, only the outer skin is affected. It may be very smooth, and it may also be shiny and red, but there is no open wound or sign of infection. With proper interventions, the prognosis at this stage is excellent.
Grade 2– At this stage, there is damage to the skin and there may be a scab, callous, or open wound, but the foot will not be obviously swollen. With proper interventions, the prognosis at this stage is good.
Grade 3– At this stage, the disease process, and possibly infection, have progressed deeper into the tissues of the foot. The foot will be swollen and painful, and there may be discharge. Prognosis at this stage is good to guarded.
Grade 4– At this stage, the infection has progressed to involve deeper structures within the foot, such as tendons and bone. Individuals with this stage of disease may develop tenosynovitis (inflammation of the tendon sheath), arthritis, and/or osteomyelitis. Prognosis at this stage is guarded to poor.
Grade 5– At this stage, the condition is so severe that it results in debilitating deformity and loss of function. Prognosis at this stage is grave.
It is important to address bumblefoot early before it becomes actively infected and to prevent the introduction of bacteria by keeping the area clean and covered. However, it’s important to note that wrapping webbed feet must be done carefully, so as not to damage the delicate webbing. Depending on the underlying cause, when caught early, foot wraps and changes to the environment may be enough to prevent progression if there is no infection. However, if the primary cause is osteoarthritis in the opposite limb, it can be difficult to fully resolve bumblefoot and have the skin of the foot completely heal.
Be sure to work with a veterinarian if one of your residents has bumblefoot, especially if the affected foot is warmer than normal, painful, or swollen, or if it has discharge, an open wound, or a large scab. Your veterinarian can assess the foot to determine how severe the condition is (which may require x-rays), prescribe appropriate medications, and help create a treatment plan. Depending on the severity, treatment may include systemic antibiotics, analgesics, soaking the foot, various types of foot wraps, delivery of antibiotics directly to the affected area (for example, through the use of antibiotic-impregnated beads), and in some cases, surgical debridement (done by a licensed veterinarian with appropriate analgesics and anesthetics). Keep in mind that the individual’s good foot may be vulnerable to developing bumblefoot if they are especially painful and reluctant to bear weight on the affected foot. Be sure to keep a close eye on the other foot and protect it with a padded bandage as needed.
It is important to work with a veterinarian to determine which structures of the foot are affected, to establish an appropriate treatment plan, and if the treatment involves wound management or wrapping the foot, you must be shown how to do this properly. Left untreated, bumblefoot infections can have devastating consequences.*
SOURCES:
Geriatric Diseases of Pet Birds | Merck Veterinary Manual
Pododermatitis In Birds And Small Mammals | Schoemaker and Van Zeeland
Bumblefoot Surgery And Management | Great Western Exotic Vets
A Multifaceted Approach to the Treatment of Bumblefoot in Raptors | J. David Remple (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Waterfowl Medicine | M. Scott Echols DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice) The Medical Center for Birds Oakley, CA (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Candidiasis (Sour Crop)
Though they do not have a true cropA crop is a pouched enlargement of the esophagus of many birds that serves as a receptacle for food and for its preliminary maceration. like chickens, ducks and geese can develop “crop” issues, including candidiasis (sour crop). Candidiasis is a yeast infection caused by an overgrowth of Candida, often Candida albicans, which is commonly present in the GI tract of healthy birds. There are a variety of factors that can cause an overgrowth of Candida – these include certain medications such as antibiotics or steroids, unsanitary drinking water, diets high in sugar or carbohydrates, and even excess stress. Sour crop can also be secondary to food fermenting in the crop due to a crop impaction or other disease processes that cause crop stasis.
A duck with sour crop will have a fluid-filled crop that is slow to empty. You may also notice a sour smell on their breath. Treatment typically includes the use of an antifungal treatment, such as Nystatin, and/or an apple cider vinegar water treatment. Never use a galvanized metal waterer to administer apple cider vinegar water, as the acid can damage the metal and contaminate the water. It’s also important to identify if the sour crop is secondary to another issue so that the underlying cause can be addressed as well. If intubationthe introduction of a tube into a hollow organ (such as the esophagus or trachea) is recommended to remove the liquid or administer medication, you must be trained by an expert before attempting this technique.†
SOURCES:
Overview of Candidiasis in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Cloacal Prolapse
While it is possible for various tissues, including the intestines, to be prolapsed, most often, you will find female residents have a prolapsed oviduct and males have a prolapsed phallus. The prognosis and urgency for veterinary care depend on which and how much tissue has prolapsed, whether the tissue is damaged or necrotic, whether or not the tissue can easily be reinserted, how the individual is behaving overall, and whether the prolapsethe falling down or slipping of a body part from its usual position or relations is secondary to another issue.
Prolapsed Oviduct – A very small oviductal prolapse of healthy-looking tissue may go in on its own with little intervention. In some cases, gently blowing on the tissue is all that is needed to get it to go back in, or you may be able to gently reinsert it using a sterile glove and lubricant. However, if the tissue does not go in easily and stay in, you should contact your veterinarian. You should also contact your veterinarian immediately if a resident has a large amount of prolapsed tissue, necrotic or damaged prolapsed tissue, or is actively straining. You’ll also want to reach out to your veterinarian if someone re-prolapses after reinsertion of the tissue. Your veterinarian can not only address the prolapse but can also work to determine the underlying cause (for example, salpingitis, impacted oviduct, or dystocia). They can also recommend an appropriate treatment plan (which will likely include an anti-inflammatory medication and an antibiotic). If the duck does not have a deslorelin (Suprelorin) implant, you should discuss this option with your veterinarian, as this may be recommended if the prolapse is related to hormones that need to be suppressed.
When moving a bird with a prolapsed oviduct, it’s safest to do so using a carrier, especially for bigger individuals. Sometimes the stress of handling causes the bird to further strain and prolapse more tissue. If you need to carry the individual, keeping one hand firmly behind their vent to prevent more tissue from prolapsing can be helpful.
If the individual cannot be seen right away, or if the prolapse is small and does not currently constitute an emergency vet visit, it’s important to keep the tissue from drying out while you wait to have them seen. This can be done by applying a lubricant, such as KY Jelly, to the exposed tissue multiple times during the day. Also, be aware that chickens and turkeys (and possibly other related species) may be inclined to peck at prolapsed tissue (especially if there is any sign of blood in the area). This will cause damage to the sensitive tissue, so a duck with a prolapsed oviduct should be kept away from any residents who might cause them harmThe infliction of mental, emotional, and/or physical pain, suffering, or loss. Harm can occur intentionally or unintentionally and directly or indirectly. Someone can intentionally cause direct harm (e.g., punitively cutting a sheep's skin while shearing them) or unintentionally cause direct harm (e.g., your hand slips while shearing a sheep, causing an accidental wound on their skin). Likewise, someone can intentionally cause indirect harm (e.g., selling socks made from a sanctuary resident's wool and encouraging folks who purchase them to buy more products made from the wool of farmed sheep) or unintentionally cause indirect harm (e.g., selling socks made from a sanctuary resident's wool, which inadvertently perpetuates the idea that it is ok to commodify sheep for their wool).. It is also important to keep the prolapsed region clean and dry, and inspect it for fly strike.
Prolapsed Phallus – Unlike other farmed bird species, male waterfowl have a protusible phallus which can also become prolapsed if it is unable to retract back into their body. A waterfowl resident with a prolapsed phallus will need to be seen by your veterinarian. Without treatment, the tissue of the phallus can dry out, become damaged, and ultimately become necrotic, requiring amputation. A prompt response is key. Your veterinarian can assess the tissue, prescribe appropriate medications, and determine if the phallus can be reinserted or if amputation is necessary. As with oviductal prolapse, be sure to keep the tissue lubricated, clean, and protected from damage if you are not able to get the individual to the vet right away.†
SOURCES:
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis refers to disease caused by the protozoan parasite coccidia. While ducks can be affected, there is far less information available about coccidiosis in waterfowl than in chickens and turkeys. Numerous species of coccidia belonging to the genera Eimeria, Wenyonella, and Tyzzeria have been reported in domesticated and wild ducks, though not all are pathogenic. Ducks of all ages can become infected with coccidia, but disease is most often seen in younger ducklings. Individuals who have a weakened immune system due to disease or stress may also be at an increased risk of developing coccidiosis.
Signs of coccidiosis include inappetence, weight loss, weakness, and generally looking unwell. Be sure to consult with your veterinarian if you have concerns about your residents. You can submit a fecal sample to check for coccidia oocysts (“eggs”). Coccidiosis is self-limiting, so treatment may not be recommended, especially if oocysts are found during routine fecal testing and the individual is not showing clinical signs. However, treatment may be recommended for individuals showing clinical signs – consult with your veterinarian for guidance.
You can reduce your residents’ exposure to coccidia oocysts by properly quarantining new residents, regularly removing feces and soiled bedding from living spaces, avoiding overcrowding, and keeping food and water sources clean.†
SOURCES:
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Overview Of Coccidiosis In Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Crop Impaction
Unlike galliformesOrder of heavy-bodied ground birds including chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, quail, and peafowl, ducks do not have a true crop. However, their esophagus can expand to accommodate food intake, and there have been reports of “crop” issues, including crop impaction, in waterfowl. If a bird’s crop is unable to properly empty due to any degree of blockage, it will become impacted. Crop impactions can be caused by a variety of factors, including ingestion of undigestible materials such as feathers, long blades of grass, straw, wood shavings, kitty litter, or other foreign bodies. Damage or disease of the crop can also result in the crop not emptying properly, and crop impaction can also be secondary to other diseases.
If you notice that a duck resident’s crop is distended, it’s important to have them evaluated by a veterinarian. If they determine the individual’s crop is impacted, they can work to determine the underlying cause and recommend treatment options, which may include drugs that improve crop motility (such as metoclopramide) and/or physically flushing and massaging the crop. If you are instructed to flush a duck’s crop, ask your veterinarian to demonstrate the proper technique to you, as doing so incorrectly can result in aspiration and even death. In other instances, your veterinarian may recommend physically emptying the crop. They may be able to remove the contents without surgery, but in some cases, surgical intervention will be necessary (this should only be done by a licensed veterinarian using proper anesthesia and analgesics). It is also important that you do not massage the crop without consulting your veterinarian first. Crop massage may cause aspiration of crop contents and life-threatening pneumonia.†
SOURCE:
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Cystic Oviduct
In ducks, like most other species of birds, only the left ovary fully develops and is functional. The right oviduct regresses but can become fluid-filled. A large cystic right oviduct can contain a large amount of fluid. This can compress a duck’s vital organs and put pressure on air sacs. Fluid build-up from a cystic right oviduct develops much more slowly than fluid build-up that is the result of reproductive tract cancer. Ultrasonography can confirm a suspected cystic right oviduct diagnosis. Your veterinarian may recommend draining the fluid and, in some cases, may teach you how to do so again in the future. They may also recommend administration of leuprolide acetate or deslorelin to help prevent recurrence.†
SOURCES:
Avian Reproductive Tract Diseases And Surgical Resolutions | Scott Echols and Brian Speer
Cystic Right Oviduct in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Duck Virus Enteritis (Duck Plague)
Also known as “Duck Plague,” duck virus enteritis (DVE) is a contagious and often fatal disease of ducks, geese, and swans caused by a herpes virus. While this disease has been reported in numerous breeds of wild and domesticated ducks, Muscovies appear to be especially susceptible to this infection. Ducks of all ages can be affected, but mortality rates are typically higher in adults than in ducklings. DVE can be transmitted via direct contact with infected birds or from contact with a contaminated environment. Water can play a significant role in transmission, particularly if residents have access to bodies of water that wild waterfowl also have access to.
Clinical signs of disease develop 3-7 days after exposure to the virus and vary depending on many factors, including the age of the individual and the strain of the virus. In mature ducks, clinical signs include sensitivity to light (manifested as half-closed eyes), inappetence, extreme thirst, ruffled feathers, droopiness with outstretched wings, sluggishness, ataxiaThe presence of abnormal, uncoordinated movements., inability to stand, and nasal discharge. Individuals may also have watery or bloody diarrhea and a dirty vent area. In actively laying females, you may note a sharp drop in egg laying. If forced to move, you may note head, neck, or body tremors in sick individuals. In some cases, the first sign of disease may be sudden death. Deceased birds may have blood coming from their nareseither of the pair of openings of the nose or nasal cavity and blood-stained feathers around their vent. Deceased males may have a prolapsed phallus. Signs of DVE in ducklings include dehydration, weight loss, bloody feathers around the vent, a blue color to the bill, and nasal and ocular discharge. Ducklings infected with a low-virulent strain often develop secondary bacterial infections with Pasteurella multocida, Riemerella anatipestifer, or E. coli.
Unfortunately, there is no treatment for DVE, and ducks showing clinical signs of disease often die. Birds who survive can become carriers and shed the virus intermittently. Prevention is key – in addition to following proper intake and quarantineThe policy or space in which an individual is separately housed away from others as a preventative measure to protect other residents from potentially contagious health conditions, such as in the case of new residents or residents who may have been exposed to certain diseases. procedures for new residents, avoiding situations where duck residents come into contact (directly or indirectly) with wild waterfowl can reduce their risk of being exposed to DVE. There is a vaccine available to protect against DVE. We suggest talking to your veterinarian about the most appropriate vaccine protocols for your residents. In addition to being used as a preventative measure against DVE, the vaccine can also be used during an outbreak to limit disease spread. Contact your veterinarian immediately if you suspect DVE, and isolate individuals who are showing signs of disease.†
SOURCES:
Duck Health Care | Cornell University
Diseases Of Poultry, 13th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Duck Viral Enteritis | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Duck Plague | Penn Vet (Non-Compassionate Source)
Duck Virus Enteritis | OIE Terrestrial Manual 2018 (Non-Compassionate Source)
Egg Binding (Egg-Bound)
A duck who is egg-bound has an egg stuck in her oviduct. Typical signs of egg binding include obvious straining, squatting, standing up oddly tall, open-mouth breathing (from the pain and stress of pushing), and a lack of appetite, though sometimes the only sign something is wrong is that they are isolating themselves or not quite acting like themself. Egg-binding can lead to cloacal prolapse, a potentially fatal condition. Do not break the egg or cut the bird to get the egg out. In some instances, holding the duck in a lukewarm water bath can help her to pass the egg. However, this doesn’t always work, so watch the duck closely, and if she does not pass the egg while in the bath, or if her symptoms worsen at all, take her to the veterinarian as soon as possible – if left untreated, egg-binding can be fatal.
If you suspect a duck is egg bound but she is not showing any of the more serious signs described above, you can place her in an area with a safe heat source such as a heating pad or microwavable heat disc – always have a towel or other fabric between the bird and the heat source, make sure the space is set up so that the duck can move away from the heat source if needed, and also make sure that she is well enough to move herself away from the heat if desired. Talk to your veterinarian about providing an oral vitamin and probiotic supplement made specifically for birds and adding additional oral calcium to her diet during this time. If, over the course of the next 24 hours, the duck has not passed an egg or if she becomes progressively painful, she should be examined by a veterinarian. Please note that other reproductive issues may cause similar signs to those seen with egg binding.†
SOURCE:
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Egg Yolk Peritonitis/ Coelomitis
Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum (the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity). Egg Yolk Peritonitis (also called EYP or Egg Peritonitis) occurs when there is egg material present in a bird’s abdomen, causing the inflammation. Egg material can enter the abdomen in various ways, either from being released from the ovary directly into the abdomen, by being expelled back out of the oviduct for some reason, or from a ruptured oviduct (often due to a severe oviductal impaction). Bacteria quickly grow in the resultant environment.
Depending on the underlying cause of the inflammation/infection, it is not uncommon for the bird to make a full recovery with appropriate treatment, especially if there was no underlying infectious process causing the issue. On a veterinarian’s recommendation, Egg Yolk Peritonitis can be treated with intervention (draining of abdominal fluid), antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, and, potentially Suprelorin (deslorelin) implantation to give them time to recover, though the prognosis is highly dependent on what caused the egg material to end up in their abdomen in the first place. If abdominal fluid is collected, it can be cultured to identify bacterial causes and to determine what drugs the bacteria are susceptible to. It’s a good idea to request a complete blood panel if egg yolk peritonitis is suspected.†
SOURCES:
Avian Reproductive Tract Diseases And Surgical Resolutions | Scott Echols and Brian Speer
Backyard Waterfowl Medicine | M. Scott Echols DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice) The Medical Center for Birds Oakley, CA (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Fowl Cholera
Caused by Pasteurella multocida, fowl cholera is a contagious bacterial disease that can affect both wild and domesticated bird species, including turkeys, ducks, geese, and chickens. Fowl cholera typically occurs in late summer, fall, or winter, and can manifest as acute, chronic, or asymptomatic infection. Acute infection is often fatal, and unfortunately, signs of illness usually only manifest a few hours before death. Signs of acute fowl cholera include fever, inappetence, increased respiratory rate, puffy feathers, and oral mucous discharge. Cyanosis is typically seen at the end stages. Individuals will also have diarrhea, which starts out whitish and watery and later contains mucus and turns a greenish color. Individuals who survive an acute infection may remain chronically infected. P. multocida strains with low virulence may cause chronic infection without acute infection. Signs of chronic infection may include swelling of the sinuses, foot pads, along the keel, or in the joints of the wing or legs. If infection in the ear occurs, the individual may develop torticollis (wry neck). Respiratory infection may cause open-mouth breathing and tracheal rales.
P. multocida can be introduced to a flock by an asymptomatic or chronically infected individual, but it’s also possible for wild birds to transmit this infection to sanctuary residents if they are able to come into contact with one another. While some mammalian farmed animal species can be carriers of P. multocida, according to Diseases of Poultry, 13th Edition, these organisms do not typically cause disease in farmed bird species, with the exception of P. multocida from pigs.
Infected individuals spread the bacteria in discharge from the eyes, nares, or mouth, which then contaminates the environment as well as food and water sources. The bacteria can also be spread in the feces of infected birds. Contact your veterinarian right away if you suspect a resident has fowl cholera. Diagnosis is confirmed with bacterial culture. Your veterinarian can recommend treatment, but successful treatment is dependent on how early and aggressively treatment is initiated and whether or not other infections are present. There are vaccines available, but these do not offer complete protection. Be sure to talk to your veterinarian about whether or not vaccination is recommended and which vaccine is most appropriate. In the environment, the bacteria can be killed by sunlight, heat, drying, and common disinfectants.*
SOURCES:
Fowl Cholera | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Diseases Of Poultry 13th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Frostbite
Frostbite is a localized injury resulting from freezing and thawing of tissues. In most duck breeds, toes are most commonly affected, though in extreme cases, a duck’s entire foot and leg can also be affected. In Muscovy ducks, frostbite is also a concern in their caruncles, particularly the large caruncle over the bill that some males develop. While proper housing and practices that protect residents from freezing temperatures can help prevent frostbite in sanctuary residents, it is not uncommon for farmed animal sanctuariesAnimal sanctuaries that primarily care for rescued animals that were farmed by humans. in colder climates to rescue individuals who are suffering from frostbite. Additionally, certain circumstances may result in a current resident developing a mild case of frostbite, despite a caregiver’s best efforts. An unexpected loss of power or period of unprecedented cold could put residents at risk of frostbite, and certain health challenges could increase an individual’s risk of developing frostbite.
To understand frostbite, it’s helpful to first understand what happens in the avian body as temperatures drop. If environmental temperature drops to the point where a bird is unable to maintain a stable internal body temperature, heat will be conserved in the vital organs, sometimes to the detriment of the extremities. This is achieved through constriction of the blood vessels in the bird’s extremities with regular, intermittent dilation of the blood vessels (known as the hunting reflex) to keep tissue viable. However, if the bird’s body temperature continues to drop, this necessary dilation of blood vessels stops. Both the direct freezing injury and inadequate blood supply (ischemia) result in damage to the tissue, though according to Dr. James Whellehan, DVM, of these, the damage caused by resultant ischemic injury is typically more severe. Frostbite can result in necrosisNecrosis is the death of most or all of the cells in an organ or tissue due to disease, injury, or failure of the blood supply. and loss of portions of the extremities, though it can take weeks for the line of demarcation between viable and necrotic tissue to develop.
If the toes, feet, or legs are affected, they may initially appear red and swollen, then darken in color to gray, purple, or even black. If the caruncles are affected, the tissue may initially appear pale or yellow and oozy before transitioning to black. Depending on the extent of the damage, affected tissue may die, ultimately becoming hard, black, and cold. In some cases, just the outer layers of tissue are affected, but in more advanced cases, the deeper tissues are also affected, in which case loss of portions of the extremity will occur and will not grow back. Preservation of tissue is most likely if frostbite is caught early and treatment is started immediately.
If you suspect a duck has frostbite, be sure to keep them in a warm living space and work closely with your veterinarian. Please note that while it was once recommended to massage the affected area, this is likely to cause further trauma. If an individual developed frostbite at your sanctuary (versus a new rescue who arrives with frostbite), be sure to check others living in the same space and take steps to keep the space warmer, drier, and better ventilated.
Your veterinarian can make specific recommendations for individuals with frostbite depending on the area affected and the suspected extent of the damage (remember, it takes weeks to fully understand the extent of the damage). Frostbite is painful, so at minimum, they will likely prescribe pain medications but may feel additional treatments, such as antibiotics to prevent or manage secondary infection, are necessary. If caught early, before there are obvious signs of necrosis, particularly if toes, feet, or legs are affected, your veterinarian may recommend treatments that can reduce the chances of limb loss. In cases where the extent of the damage is likely to cause loss of portions of extremities, your veterinarian can advise you regarding the best way to support the individual during this process (both in terms of keeping them comfortable and preventing secondary infection). They can also determine if surgical amputation is advised.*
SOURCE:
Frostbite In Birds: Pathophysiology And Treatment | James F. X. Wellehan, DVM, MS
Gout
Gout is caused by hyperuricemia, an excess of uric acid in the blood, which can develop if a duck produces more uric acid than their kidneys can excrete or if they have kidney issues that impair their ability to excrete uric acid normally. This results in uric acid deposits within the body. There are two forms of gout that affect birds – visceral and articular gout.
Visceral Gout– Ducks with visceral gout develop uric acid deposits around their visceral organs. Common areas affected include the liver, spleen, and pericardium. Possible signs of visceral gout include lethargy, poor appetite, weight loss, ruffled feathers, and abnormal droppings. However, individuals with visceral gout may die suddenly without showing obvious clinical signs, and a diagnosis of visceral gout may be made during a post-mortem examination.
Articular Gout– Ducks with articular gout develop uric acid buildup in their joints, typically in their feet, resulting in soft, painful swelling. Articular gout is sometimes mistaken for bumblefoot, but a key difference is that swelling from articular gout will not be hot. Your veterinarian may take a sample of the material for diagnostic purposes, but you should not attempt to drain affected areas yourself.
Individuals showing any of the signs listed above should be seen by a veterinarian for evaluation. There are a variety of factors that can contribute to the development of gout, including dietary-related issues (ex. prolonged vitamin A deficiency, excess dietary calcium, diets with excessively high levels of protein), infectious diseases that result in kidney damage, and toxins (ex. mycotoxins, certain antibiotics, overdose of insecticides or disinfectants). Your veterinarian can recommend further diagnostics and appropriate treatment, which may include fluid therapy, medications to manage hyperuricemia (such as allopurinol and colchicine), and possible dietary changes and/or supplementation (such as with vitamin A). Treatment will depend on the specific situation, so be sure to defer to your veterinarian. In the case of articular gout, your veterinarian may also recommend surgery. This is a painful procedure that can result in profuse bleeding and secondary infection and should only be done by a licensed veterinarian using appropriate anesthetics and analgesics.*
SOURCES:
Avian Renal Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, And Therapy | Michael Lierz, Dr. Med. Vet.
Evaluating And Treating The Kidneys | M. Scott Echols, DVM, Dipl ABVP- Avian
Gout Management in Poultry | The Poultry Site (Non-Compassionate Source)
Avian Urolithiasis (Visceral Gout): An Overview | The Poultry Site (Non-Compassionate Source)
Heat Exhaustion
Though ducks tend not to be as likely to develop heat exhaustion as chickens or turkeys, it’s still important to provide them relief from the sun and heat. It’s important to note that as humidity rises, the temperature at which a duck is likely to develop heat-related illness lowers. Therefore, times of high heat and high humidity are most concerning.
It’s important to watch for signs that your duck residents are too warm, and make adjustments to their living space BEFORE the condition progresses to dangerous heat exhaustion. A duck who is too hot, but not yet suffering from heat exhaustion, will stand with their wings held away from their body and will breathe with their mouth open. As the condition progresses, what starts as slight open-mouth breathing will become more exaggerated panting, possibly with their neck extended, and their respiratory rate will increase. They may develop diarrhea and appear lethargic. In advanced stages, the duck may collapse or even have seizures.
Call your veterinarian immediately if one of your residents appears to be suffering from heat exhaustion. It’s important to gradually lower their body temperature – this can be done by moving them out of the sun (but keep handling to an absolute minimum), misting their feet and legs with cool (but not ice-cold) water, and positioning a fan to cool them off. In addition to cooling them off, your veterinarian will be able to advise you about how to safely address their dehydration and possible electrolyte imbalance and may also recommend other treatments, including antibiotics to address secondary immunosuppression and bacterial translocation.†
SOURCES:
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Preventing Heat Stress In Poultry | University Of Minnesota Extension (Non-Compassionate Source)
Heavy Metal Toxicosis
Heavy metal toxicosis is one of the most common causes of toxicity in birds. While there are a number of heavy metals that can cause toxicity, birds are most often exposed to heavy metals by ingesting substances that contain lead or zinc. To learn more about how to protect your residents from heavy metal toxicosis, as well as how to recognize signs of toxicity, check out our in-depth, veterinarian-reviewed resource here.
Internal Laying
Internal laying refers to the accumulation of egg follicles in the duck’s abdominal cavity. This happens when follicles change direction and are discharged internally instead of exiting out of the oviduct and being laid. This could be caused by a number of conditions, such as inflammation, infection, or cancer. Sometimes, internal yolk can be reabsorbed by a healthy duck, especially if it remains intact and does not rupture, but shell membranes, hardened egg masses, and ruptured follicles can quickly cause secondary problems, and repeated internal laying quickly compounds health risks, including egg yolk peritonitis. In severe cases, surgery may be required to save the bird’s life, though this intervention can carry significant risk. You can potentially help a bird recovering from internal laying with implantation.†
SOURCES:
Avian Reproductive Tract Diseases And Surgical Resolutions | Scott Echols and Brian Speer
Internal Laying In Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual
Lice
Waterfowl are affected by lice less often than chickens and turkeys, but they can be affected. Lice are small, wingless insects, typically ranging from 1-6mm in size. They are oblong and often straw-colored. Lice spread via direct contact, but can also be spread via fomitesObjects or materials that may become contaminated with an infectious agent and contribute to disease spread or through a contaminated environment. Lice are typically species-specific, but bird species living in close contact with other bird species can spread lice to one another. However, lice species that affect waterfowl cannot feed or reproduce on humans or other mammals. While humans can have avian lice crawling on them, the lice cannot survive on a human for long.
Birds are affected by chewing lice species, and different species have different areas of the body they most commonly infest. Checking residents for external parasites, including lice, should be part of your routine health checks, but because of their thick feathering, thoroughly checking waterfowl can be difficult. Treatment typically involves application of a waterfowl-safe insecticide. Please consult with your veterinarian for treatment recommendations, and make sure to follow your veterinarian’s instructions in their administration to prevent an accidental overdose. Not all insecticide treatments kill lice eggs, so reapplication may be necessary. Again, your veterinarian will be best able to advise you regarding a treatment plan.†
SOURCES:
Spotting Ectoparasites On Ducks | Erin Masur, DVM
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Mites
Mite infestations are less common in ducks than in other farmed bird species, such as chickens or turkeys, but they can be affected. Mites that can affect ducks include:
Northern Fowl Mites – This blood-sucking parasite can affect numerous species of birds, including ducks. Northern fowl mites live on the feathers of the host, laying their eggs at the base of the feather and traveling to the host’s skin to feed. The vent area is the most common site for northern fowl mites, but they may also be found on the legs, around the preen glanda large gland that occurs in most birds, opens dorsally at the base of the tail feathers, and usually secretes an oily fluid which the bird uses in preening their feathers (also known as an oil gland or uropygial gland), or on other areas of the body. Patches of mites create a dirty appearance, similar to that of feathers caked with feces or mud, but upon closer inspection, you will be able to detect movement within the mite cluster. Heavy infestation can cause considerable damage to the skin, such as crusting and scabbing, and can also cause anemiaAnemia is a condition in which you don't have enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to the body's tissues., which in severe cases can be life-threatening. Northern fowl mites can live off the host for weeks, depending on the temperature and humidity.
Tropical Fowl Mites – This mite affects various wild and domesticated bird species, including ducks, and if a bird host is not available, this mite will bite humans. Tropical fowl mites are similar to northern fowl mites, but lay eggs both on the host and in the bird’s nest. As the name suggests, this mite is found most often in warm regions.
Poultry Red Mites (also known as Red Mites, Chicken Mites, Roost Mites, or Poultry Mites) – This blood-sucking mite is not very common in ducks, but can affect ducks who are living with chickens. While red mites can bite other animals, including humans, they cannot survive on them. Red mites are nocturnal, feeding at night and spending the day off of their host in cracks and crevices in the living space, on roosts, or in nest boxes. Unlike northern fowl mites, red mites lay their eggs off of the host. Red mites are small, but visible to the naked eye. However, detection of red mites, especially at low levels, can be difficult since they are not on the host during the day. If you suspect red mites, you can check your residents at night, or you can thoroughly examine nest boxes, roosts, and other likely daytime hiding spots. Some sources suggest taping a piece of corrugated cardboard in the area where residents roost, as red mites will likely move to the cardboard during the day, making detection easier. Birds with red mite infestation may show signs of general irritation/agitation. They may become anemic due to blood loss and, in cases of severe infestation, this anemia can be life-threatening. Red mites can live off the host for months.
Ducks become infected with the above mites through direct contact with infected birds (including wild birds), from other animals (including humans) who have come in contact with the mites, or from fomites or an infested environment. Proper quarantine procedures play an important role in preventing the introduction of mites to your residents and their living spaces, though wild birds can also be a source of infection. Eradication of mites can be difficult and should involve treatment of the individual birds as well as the environment (treatment of the environment is especially important when dealing with red mites and tropical fowl mites).
Your veterinarian can make treatment recommendations. Be aware that some insecticide treatments are effective against mites but are dangerous (both to birds and humans). Always use caution and be sure to follow your veterinarian’s instructions regarding application to avoid accidental overdose. While diatomaceous earth is often recommended as a safe and “natural” treatment, it is rarely enough to treat a mite infestation and is harmful if inhaled (for humans and birds). Various premise treatments can be used to treat the habitat, but be sure to read all instructions and remove birds for as long as necessary based on package instructions (and do not return them to the space until all fumes have dissipated).†
SOURCES:
Spotting Ectoparasites On Ducks | Erin Masur, DVM
Mites Of Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Chicken Mite | Veterinary Entomology (Non-Compassionate Source)
Northern Fowl Mite | Veterinary Entomology (Non-Compassionate Source)
Northern Fowl Mite | The Chicken Vet (Non-Compassionate Source)
Tropical Fowl Mite | University Of Florida (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Red Mites | Rangiora Vet Centre (Non-Compassionate Source)
Mycoplasmosis
The term Mycoplasmosis is used to refer to infectious diseases caused by microorganisms called Mycoplasma. Though chickens and turkeys are more often affected, waterfowl can be affected by several mycoplasma species, including Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae. Both of these organisms can cause respiratory infections, but M. gallisepticum typically causes more obvious respiratory disease (i.e., swollen sinuses), whereas respiratory infection with M. synoviae is often subclinical. If M. synoviae becomes systemic, it results in infectious synovitis of joints and tendons. Signs of infectious synovitis include swelling of the hocks and footpads, weakness, lameness, and sitting more than usual.
M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae are spread from bird to bird through respiratory secretions and aerosols and can also be spread by contaminated clothing, equipment, or other fomites. Birds affected by mycoplasma can become vulnerable to secondary viral or bacterial infections. Your veterinarian can perform laboratory testing for an official diagnosis and can make treatment recommendations.†
SOURCES:
Mycoplasma gallisepticum Infection in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Mycoplasma synoviae Infection in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Newcastle Disease
This is a highly contagious viral disease that is a worldwide problem and primarily presents as an acute respiratory disease. Severity of disease is based on many factors, including the virulence of the virus. The World Organisation For Animal Health (OIE) describes three forms of the disease: lentogenic (or mild), mesogenic (or moderate), and velogenic (or very virulent). Lentogenic strains, while widespread, cause few disease outbreaks, according to the OIE, and are not reportable. Virulent Newcastle disease (vND, sometimes referred to as Exotic Newcastle disease) is a reportable disease. Infected birds will shed the virus in their respiratory discharges and feces. It can also be present in eggs that are laid by infected birds. Birds may become infected through direct contact with infected birds or by coming into contact with food, water, equipment, or other fomites contaminated with the virus.
Clinical signs typically appear 2-12 days after exposure, with the average being 5 days following exposure. There are different forms of this disease that affect different areas of the bird’s body. Respiratory signs can include coughing, sneezing, gasping for air, and audible and abnormal breathing sounds. Very young birds as well as older birds with a weakened immune system are the most severely affected. Nervous signs may include depression, paralysis, tremors, and circling. In females who are actively laying, they may lay abnormal eggs, lay fewer eggs, or stop laying altogether. Typical signs of vND include respiratory illness, watery green diarrhea, depression, and swelling of the tissues of the head and neck.
In addition to the concern regarding how vND would affect your residents if they became infected, there is the concern regarding how your residents could be affected by regional efforts to eradicate the disease. During a recent outbreak of vND in California (2018-2020), immediate efforts to contain the disease included quarantining affected areas and compulsory mass killings of birds regardless of whether or not they had actually been infected. After push back from the community, some exemptions were granted for birds who were not showing symptoms of disease so long as their human companion kept them indoors where they could not come into contact with other birds, agreed to regular vND testing, and agreed not to move them out of the area. These exemptions were made on a case-by-case basis, but the important point is that they became available because people advocated for birds who had not been infected to be spared. When faced with a decision that you are uncomfortable with, always reach out to veterinarians or sanctuaries to figure out if there are other options that may be available, and always advocate for your residents. We recommend you pay attention to vND outbreaks and have a plan in place to protect your residents should it be detected in your area. Vaccines are available for this disease but are not typically recommended in a sanctuary and are not guaranteed to prevent infection.*
SOURCES:
Newcastle Disease | World Organisation For Animal Health (Non-Compassionate Source)
Newcastle Disease in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Diseases Of Poultry 13th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Virulent Newcastle Disease (vND) | USDAThe United States Department of Agriculture, a government department that oversees agriculture and farmed animals. APHIS (Non-Compassionate Source)
Osteomyelitis
Osteomyelitis, infection of the bone, can be caused by various pathogens, but Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli are often to blame. Osteomyelitis can occur following a compound (or open) fracture, an advanced case of bumblefoot, or a chronic keel or hock sore. Ducks may develop a keel or hock sore as a result of lying down more than usual due to illness or injury. They may also develop sores due to obesity or lying down on hard, abrasive surfaces. The prognosis of osteomyelitis depends on which bone(s) are involved and how much of the bone is infected. Treatment may include the placement of antibiotic-impregnated beads or regional limb perfusion, depending on the location of the infection. Surgical debridement of infected bone may be possible, but if the entire bone is affected, the prognosis is poor. In the case of osteomyelitis following a compound wing fracture, wing amputation may be necessary.†
SOURCES:
Top Ten Orthopedic Diseases- Avian | VetFolio
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Infectious Skeletal Disorders in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Reproductive Tract Cancer (Female)
Most of the available information about reproductive tract cancer in farmed bird species focuses on chickens, but ducks can be affected as well, particularly breeds that have been selectively bred for egg production. Signs may include abdominal distention, lethargy, and open-mouth breathing. Ultrasonography and a more detailed CT scan can be used to confirm a suspected reproductive tract cancer diagnosis, but not all veterinarians have experience imaging a duck’s reproductive tract.
These cancers often present as large amounts of accumulated abdominal fluid – much more than is typically produced from Egg Yolk Peritonitis. This fluid carries cancer cells to other areas of the abdomen and throughout the body via the bloodstream. Fluid can be removed from the abdomen using a needle and syringe, but this practice should only be done under the guidance of a veterinarian. Improper technique could result in infection or damage to internal organs or air sacs. In some cases, it may be better to have the individual sedated during this procedure. In addition to ensuring you are properly trained, your veterinarian can also explain to you when you should remove the fluid, as removal actually encourages the creation of more fluid, so removing fluid too frequently can worsen the condition. However, fluid build-up can also put pressure on air sacs and can cause birds to be very uncomfortable, so fluid removal must be done thoughtfully. This fluid is typically sterile, so antibiotic use is not typically advised.
There is no cure for reproductive tract cancer, though there are drugs that your veterinarian may recommend, such as tamoxifen, that can manage the disease for a time. A duck suffering from reproductive tract cancer could potentially be given a Suprelorin (deslorelin) implant to remove the extra stress of egg production. In addition, it has been found that supplementing flaxseed can help alleviate Ovarian Cancer severity and incidence in chickens, so you might consider trying this with your duck residents.†
SOURCES:
Avian Reproductive Tract Diseases And Surgical Resolutions | Scott Echols and Brian Speer
Ovarian Tumors Of The Hen (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Riemerella Anatipestifer Infection
This highly contagious bacterial infection is also known as “infectious serositis,” “new duck disease,” “duck septicemia,” and “anatipestifer syndrome,” and in geese has been called “gooseUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated goose breeds, not wild geese, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource. influenza” and “septicemia anserum exsudativa.” It can result in both acute and chronic septicemia, most often affecting ducklings and goslingsYoung geese. Signs of this infection include respiratory symptoms (ocular and nasal discharge, sneezing, and coughing), neurological symptoms (incoordination, ataxia, torticollis, and head and neck tremors), listlessness, and greenish diarrhea. This infection can be fatal, and individuals may be found on their backs paddling their legs at the end stages of the disease. Be sure to contact your veterinarian if you suspect Riemerella anatipestifer infection. They can perform a culture to confirm the diagnosis. Multidrug-resistant strains are becoming more common, so antimicrobial sensitivity testing is important to determine the best treatment option. There are vaccines available to protect against this bacterium, and you should work with your veterinarian to determine the most appropriate vaccination protocols for your residents.†
SOURCES:
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Riemerella anatipestifer Infection in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
Soft-Shelled Eggs
Ducks who are actively laying eggs, particularly breeds that lay significantly more eggs than their wild relatives, need a balanced diet to meet the demands of egg production. Poor nutrition can cause soft-shelled and malformed eggs, which can lead to cloacal prolapse and egg-binding. Egg production demands a lot of calcium, and breeds used in industrial egg production can easily become deficient in calcium as a result. The eggshell is developed last, and consists mostly of calcium carbonate, absorbed through diet and taken from their bones, so appropriate amounts of calcium are essential to a duck’s health, especially if they have been bred to overproduce eggs. Be sure to consult with your veterinarian if you see a resident laying more than just the occasional soft-shelled egg. They can evaluate the individual and determine if the cause is nutritional (and can make recommendations regarding diet changes and/or supplementation) or from another cause, such as shell gland issues, or if it is related to/associated with salpingitis. Soft-shelled eggs could also be a result of an issue in the oviduct, so veterinary assessment is crucial.†
SOURCES:
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Backyard Poultry Medicine and Surgery: A Guide for Veterinary Practitioners (Non-Compassionate Source)
Testicular Tumors
The vast majority of the available information about reproductive tumors in birds is focused on females, with comparatively little information about testicular tumors in males, and even less specifically about testicular tumors in ducks. However, there have been reported cases of testicular tumors in both wild and domesticated ducks (including in sanctuary residents). As the tumor grows and takes up more space in the body, the individual may show signs of inappetence, weight loss, lethargy, labored breathing, lameness, and/or weakness. Be sure to consult with your veterinarian if one of your residents is showing these signs. They can evaluate the individual and perform diagnostics to help determine the underlying cause. If a testicular tumor is detected, an individual’s prognosis will be affected by how early the tumor is caught and how large it has grown, among other factors. While surgical removal is possible and has been described in other avian species, this is a complicated procedure that may be deemed too risky. Medical management may be advisable instead and may include hormone therapies such as Lupron or Suprelorin (deslorelin) implants.†
SOURCES:
Testicular Tumors and Therapy | The Bird Clinic Veterinary Clinic
Bird Vasectomy and Castration | Dr. Scott Echols
Morphological and Histological Study Of The Testes In Adult Duck | Dhuha Adel Kareem, Eman Sami Jassem, Sameera A. Daaj and Walaa J. Al-Khala (Non-Compassionate Source)
West Nile Virus
West Nile virus (WNV) has been reported on every continent except Antarctica and is endemic in many countries in North America, Central America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Though domesticated bird species are typically less susceptible to disease from WNV than wild birds, domesticated ducks and geese can be affected and can develop fatal disease. Mosquitoes are the main vector of WNV and are the main cause of transmission, but the virus has also been detected in over 10 tick species. While vector-borne transmission is the most common way WNV spreads, experimental studies suggest direct transmission between birds is possible. Because spread via mosquitoes is the most common way the disease is spread, the risk of WNV is dependent on environmental conditions being favorable for mosquitoes. In tropical climates, outbreaks may be possible year-round, whereas in temperate climates, outbreaks are a seasonal concern.
Signs of disease from WNV can include non-specific signs of illness such as weakness, dehydration, weight loss, lethargy, and fluffed up feathers, as well as neurological signs such as ataxia, incoordination, leg and wing paralysis, torticollis (wry neck), backward arching of the neck, and seizures. Be sure to seek veterinary care for anyone showing these signs. If WNV is suspected, your veterinarian can recommend the most appropriate diagnostic testing to determine if it is the cause. Treatment typically consists of supportive care and, if the individual is suffering from seizures, steps to keep them from injuring themselves (such as housing them in a padded cage).
If you are in an area where WNV is a concern, talk to your veterinarian about whether or not vaccination is recommended. While there is not currently a commercial WNV vaccine available for birds, equine WNV vaccines have been used in certain bird species. Your veterinarian will be able to best advise you on whether or not this is appropriate for your residents, and if it is, which vaccine to use and how much/how often to administer. Establishing practices that help keep mosquito populations under control is also recommended.†
SOURCES:
West Nile Virus in Birds | Merck Veterinary Manual
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Wet Feather
In healthy waterfowl, the individual’s feathers should repel water and protect their skin from becoming wet. This is achieved via the interlocking structure of the feathers, regular preening, and molting. If there is a breakdown in this waterproofing mechanism, this is referred to as “wet feather.” Wet feather is a general term and not a specific disease – anything that interferes with an individual’s waterproofing mechanisms can lead to wet feather. This includes feather lice, poor feather quality, abnormal molts, reduced preening (such as from illness or injury), issues with the uropygial (preen) gland, significant feather loss, or contamination of feathers (such as with certain cleaners, oils, feces, or mud). While some conditions that lead to wet feather are out of your control, others are the result of poor housing and care practices. In addition to making sure their living spaces are kept clean, make sure your residents have access to water to bathe in, and take care not to use products that could affect their feathers’ waterproofing.
A waterfowl resident with wet feather will appear wet, dirty, and disheveled. It’s important to work with your veterinarian to determine the underlying cause so that you can implement appropriate interventions. In general, you will need to restrict the individual’s access to bathing/swimming until the issue is resolved. If the underlying cause is contamination of the feathers, you may be instructed to bathe the individual with a mild dish soap. In some cases, the individual’s feathers will not be waterproof again until they go through a molt. Work closely with your veterinarian to determine how to best care for an individual with wet feather, and if the issue is related to your housing or care practices, be sure to take steps to correct them to avoid future issues.†
SOURCES:
BSAVA Manual Of Backyard Poultry Medicine And Surgery (Non-Compassionate Source)
Management Of Waterfowl | Gwen B. Flinchum, BS, MS, DVM (Non-Compassionate Source)
Worms
Many different parasitic worms can affect waterfowl, including gastrointestinal nematodes, tracheal worms (gapeworm, typically Cyathostoma bronchialis), tapeworms, and trematodes (flukes). Severity of disease is impacted by various factors, including the worm species, the level of infestation, and factors specific to the host (e.g., age, general health, etc.). Parasitic infection can make residents vulnerable to other diseases. Be sure to talk to your veterinarian about common worms in your area. You can also perform routine fecal testing to get an idea of some of the parasitic worms, if any, your residents are harboring, even if they are not showing clinical signs of disease. You should work with your veterinarian to establish preventative strategies (if applicable), as well as screening and dewormingThe act of medicating an animal to reduce or eliminate internal parasites, either prophylactically or in response to illness. protocols for your sanctuary. The overuse of deworming medications (anthelmintics) can result in parasitic worms that are resistant to some or all medications. Therefore, best practice is to work with your veterinarian to determine when deworming is necessary, which treatment is recommended, and then to follow up to ensure the treatment worked by comparing post-deworming fecal egg counts to pre-deworming counts.†
SOURCES:
Diseases Of Poultry 14th Edition | David E. Swayne (Non-Compassionate Source)
Helminthiasis in Poultry | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)
*Reviewed by a veterinarian in 2023.
†Reviewed by a veterinarian in May 2025.
