This resource has been fully reviewed and updated by a member of The Open Sanctuary Project’s staff as of December 23, 2021

It can be a challenge to ensure sheep residents have healthy, happy lives after coming to a sanctuary, and there are many different aspects of care to consider each day. Unfortunately, toxic and poisonous hazards are sometimes overlooked in the hustle and bustle of operating a sanctuary. While minor exposure to many of these toxins are unlikely to cause serious problems, large amounts can cause severe health issues and sadly, even death. There are also some toxins that are highly dangerous even in small amounts.

In order to help ensure you never run into this problem, we have compiled this resource of common plants and other potentially toxic things that have been known to be a problem for sheep.

Plants That Are Toxic To Sheep

We have built a list below of a number of plants known to be toxic in some way to sheep.^1,2,3,4,5 If you’d like more information, Check out The Open Sanctuary Project’s Global Toxic Plant Database and filter Species Afflicted by sheep in order to see a list of plants across the world that are toxic to sheep. Please note that, while comprehensive, this list may not contain every single plant toxic to sheep!

Other Potential Sheep Toxins

Blue-Green Algae ^6,7,8

Blue-green algae are usually often found in stagnant, slow-moving water when temperatures are high. Consumption of this algae can result in poisoning in sheep and other animals. Symptoms often occur quickly after ingestion. Symptoms may include lethargy, lack of appetite, vomiting, hypersalivation, nasal discharge, muscle tremors, coughing, frothing at the mouth, sneezing, involuntary eye movement, labored breathing, and bloody diarrhea. In severe cases, sheep may collapse and die. Photosensitization may be a delayed result of ingestion, causing reddening and irritation of the area around the mouth, the ear, or other areas of the body.

Cantharidiasis (Blister Beetle Poisoning)^9,10

Blister beetles contain cantharidin, a chemical that works as a defense mechanism against predators. Cantharidin can injure or kill sheep when ingested, though horses are more seriously affected. Contact is usually made when sheep eat alfalfa hay that beetles were gathered up in and crushed during harvesting. First cutting hay is less likely to contain blister beetles as they tend to gather later in the season. Sheep that ingest cantharidin may experience symptoms such as diarrhea, depression, abdominal pain, recumbency, increased heart and respiratory rate, dehydration, frequent urination, and in severe cases, death.

If you suspect Blister Beetle Poisoning, contact your veterinarian immediately. If early veterinary care is provided, afflicted sheep may recovery.

Copper^11,12,13

While copper is an important mineral in the diet of sheep (in very small amounts), it is possible for them to develop copper poisoning as a result of too much copper in the diet. Typically toxicity is due to ingestion of something not intended for sheep, such as complete “feeds” or mineral blocks designed for other species. There is a form of secondary copper poisoning as well that is caused by a sudden release of copper from the liver (where it is stored).  Times of extreme stress can result in a release of copper in the system that can contribute to copper poisoning. Access to pastures where the feces of pigs or chickens have been spread should be avoided as they have higher concentrations of copper. 

Symptoms of copper poisoning in sheep may include:

• Pale mucous membranes
• Depression
• Weakness
• Panting
• Jaundice
• Aborted fetuses
• Dark red or brown urine
• Gastric distress
• Death

Grain Overload (Acidosis, Grain Poisoning)^14,15

Grain overload occurs when sheep eat large amounts of grain, causing carbohydrates to be released in the rumen and ferment instead of being normally digested. Lactic acid is produced resulting in slowing of the gut, dehydrations, and sometimes, sadly, death. While wheat and barley are the most common causes of grain overload, lupins and oats can also be the culprit.

Grain overload is most commonly seen when ruminants have access to bins or bags of grain or have an outdoor living space that has had grains recently harvested, leaving leftover grain. Grain overload can also happen if a sheep resident has a change in diet too quickly as opposed to a gradual shift. Similar issues can happen from ingesting large amounts of certain fruits or even potatoes in a short amount of time.

Signs of grain overload include:

• Bloating (left side of abdomen)
• Abdominal pain
• Recumbancy
• Lack of appetite
• Depression
• Dehydration
• Increased thirst
• Diarrhea
• Mucle weakness
• Staggering
• Standing with legs apart
• Collapse
• Laminitis
• Death

If you suspect a resident has grain overload, contact a veterinarian immediately. The sooner treatment can begin, the better.  The course of treatment will depend on how severe the condition is. depends on the severity of the condition. 

Hardware Disease

Hardware Disease refers to the injuries that can result from any resident eating something they shouldn’t, especially pieces of human-made hardware like nails, screws, and staples. Hardware disease can have devastating effects on a resident. Check out our resource on Hardware Disease prevention here.

Lead Toxicity^16,17,18,19

Lead poisoning can be serious for sheep. While lead was once used in paint (and even pesticides), it can also be found in the environments where old machinery or railroad ties, or leaded gas was once stored. Residents could ingest paint by chewing or licking surfaces that contained lead or even by ingesting certain plants that have absorbed lead from the polluted soil.

To be safe, you can have the soil tested. Local agricultural extension offices or environmental conservation services are good places to contact to learn more about testing your soil. The process should be fairly easy. In the meantime, be sure to prevent residents from accessing areas where you suspect they may come into contact with lead.

You may see the following symptoms:

• Lack of appetite
• Diarrhea
• Weight loss
• Weakness
• Anemia
• Blindness
• Staggering
• Rumen Stasis
• Headpressing
• Dullness
• Lack of coordination
• Aborted fetus
• Death

Consult a veterinarian immediately if you suspect a resident has ingested lead or is beginning to show symptoms of lead poisoning.

Mycotoxins^{20,21,22,23,24}

Mycotoxins are a toxin produced by molds (fungi) that are harmful to many animals. Mycotoxins can affect sheep through contaminated food or bedding. Moist, warm environments encourage mold growth. While sheep are more resistant to the effects of mycotoxin than horses or some other animals, they can still be seriously affected. The type, amount, and frequency of exposure to mycotoxin affect the severity of toxicosis. Pregnant sheep may be more susceptible to some mycotoxins, causing additional reproductive health symptoms. Some signs of different mycotoxin poisoning include:

• Weight loss
• Diarrhea
• Appetite loss
• Respiratory issues
• Rumin stasis
• Increased susceptibility to disease
• Poor coat quality
• Impaired growth
• Oral lesions
• Recumbency
• Lethargy
• Jaundice
• Convulsions
• Reproductive issues (lack of milk, infections, abortions etc..)
• Death in severe cases

Prevention is key in preventing serious health issues related to mycotoxin toxicosis. Luckily, there are a number of steps you can take to help protect residents:

• Store any grains, hay, or other foods in cool, dry, and clean areas.
• Keep grains and concentrates in secure food storage bins.
• Try to keep food storage areas protected from mice and rats and other wildlife.
• Use the oldest food first and try to use up open bags within a few weeks, fewer even during the summer.
• Clean storage cans and bins thoroughly.
• Keep living areas clean.
• Check with the manufacturer or supplier of the product to see if they regularly test for the presence of mycotoxins in grains before mixing food. If they don’t, try to find another supplier.
• If you are concerned about the possibility of mycotoxin contamination, have your food stores tested. This could be especially important if you have cows that show initial signs of mycotoxin exposure.

Pesticides, Herbicides, And Rodenticides^25,26,27

It may not come as a surprise that pesticides, some herbicides, and rodenticides can cause toxicosis in sheep if ingested. If sheep ingest plants that have been sprayed with certain herbicides, they can become ill or even die. Many herbicides have been developed to be safer for animals but ingestion of large amounts can cause poisoning. Many pesticides can also cause toxicosis.

Rodenticides can as well and we encourage sanctuaries to seek out alternatives. While rats and mice can pose challenges for sanctuaries, it is important to respect them and use compassionate mitigation practices. Many rodenticides are anticoagulants (They prevent the blood from clotting) though there are other rodenticides that can cause serious issues and fatality if ingested. It is imperative that they do not come into contact with these poisons. There are many new and innovative ways to address rodent populations that are more effective and compassionate.

Early treatment is critical. If you suspect a resident may have ingested any of the poisons above, contact your veterinarian immediately. Blood tests may confirm poisoning.

Selenium^28,29,30

Selenium is a highly toxic element when taken in quantities larger than the necessary dietary amount. While selenium poisoning can be an issue for many animals, sheep and other animals that browse and graze are generally at a higher risk. Plants can contain varying amounts of selenium depending on the presence and environmental factors in the soil. Poisoning can be acute or chronic.

Symptoms of acute selenium poisoning may include:

• Lack of appetite
• Diarrhea
• Salivation
• Staggering
• Anxiety/Restlessness
• Depression
• Increases heart rate
• Lack of coordination
• Muscle weakness
• Teeth grinding
• Drooping ears
• Recumbency
• Respiratory distress

Symptoms of chronic selenium poisoning may include:

• Anemia
• Diarrhea
• Loss of appetite
• Depression
• Reproductive issues
• Dull coat
• Slow wool growth
• Lameness
• Impaired immune function

Selenium deficiency can also be an issue in various regions and cause health issues. Talk with your vet about proper dietary considerations for cow residents and how to avoid selenium poisoning or deficiency in your area.

Snakebites^{31,32,33,34,35,36}

Venomous snakebites are not common, but when they occur, should be treated seriously and immediately. A snake can bite several times, so if you notice a snakebite, look for others. Snake venom varies by species, and the severity of a bite can also be influenced by the size, age, and the number of bites. Most venoms can impair blood clotting and damage the heart, while some others contain neurotoxins. Signs of snakebite may include:

• Swelling at site
• Pain
• Heat at site
• Bleeding
• Salivation
• Rapid heart rate
• Lameness
• Depression
• Lack of appetite
• Necrosis
• Staggering
• Bleeding from eyes, ears, or nose
• Death

Seek veterinary care immediately if a resident is bitten by a venomous snake. Do NOT try to suck the venom out or place a tourniquet. Keep the resident calm while seeking immediate veterinary care. Depending on the severity of the bit, treatments may include antivenin, pain medications, fluid therapy, wound treatment, tetanus vaccination, and antibiotics. Check out our Compassionate Wildlife Practices At Your Animal Sanctuary for some tips on how to dissuade snakes from your property.

Wood Stains And Paints³⁷

Some wood stains and paints can be toxic to sheep. sheep may try to chew on painted surfaces and can become ill if the stain or paint is toxic. Try and purchase paints and stains that are specially made for barns and fencing and listed as animal or “livestock” friendly.

Jump to the main text source list here.

Foods That May Be Toxic To Sheep

Consider These Variables

You may see food on this list that you have fed to your residents without any apparent issue. That may be because some foods are toxic in higher amounts while others are toxic in small amounts or whether they are being consistently offered the food over a period of time. It can also depend on the individual. We all have sensitivities to different things. Just as there are dogs who have eaten chocolate and don’t show clinical or subclinical signs of poisoning, there are many dogs that weren’t so lucky. The amount that may cause one resident to become ill (or even die) may be different for another resident. Different breeds or species can also affect their sensitivity to a toxin. In addition to these considerations, certain plants, fruits, vegetables, and other foods listed below may contain varying amounts of the toxin. The toxicity in some fruits and vegetables may even depend on their ripeness, the amount of sun exposure, the temperature, and more! Below we have put together a list of foods that are known to contain some toxin that is potentially harmful to sheep. It is our hope that providing this information will help you provide the best care possible to your residents. When possible, we have researched scientific papers to provide solid sources and tried to give more details. However, it is not an exhaustive list and is not meant to replace veterinary advice.

If You Have The Slightest Doubt…
Just because something might not be listed here as a toxic food or substance for sheep, please do not take that to mean it’s safe to give them! Even normally non-toxic produce can cause health issues if given in large amounts. Check our Daily Diet, Supplement, & Treats For Sheep resource and see if it’s listed as a safe treat for sheep residents. If you aren’t positive that it will be safe for sheep, it’s best to avoid feeding it to them in order to be as safe as possible!

In addition to the above, we cover some foods that can be toxic to goats and foods that are often questioned in terms of toxicity but may be fairly benign.

Anything With Pesticides Or Herbicides: Most vegetables and fruits are sprayed with these chemicals, which, while considered “safe” in certain amounts, can certainly be a source of concern when feeding your residents treats. Organic produce is safe from these chemicals, but for those foods that have been sprayed, it is important to peel or scrub to remove any chance of ingestion to avoid ingestion of toxins. Prevent residents from accessing areas that have been sprayed to avoid poisoning.^1,2,3

Avocado: The chemical, persin, that is present in avocado trees (bark, leaves, skin, pit, and even fruit to a lesser extent) is toxic to many species, including sheep.^4,5,6,7 Sheep that have ingested persin could present with symptoms such as swelling under the jaw, salivation, mastitis, arrhythmias, rapid or abnormally deep breathing, open-mouthed breathing, heart failure, and death. Different varieties may contain more persin than other varieties. Guatemalan varieties are more commonly associated with poisonings and have higher amounts of persin than some other varieties, though other varieties can still be toxic.^4,5

Bitter Almond Seeds And Leaves: Ruminants are more susceptible to cyanide, also known as prussic acid, poisoning than animals with a simple stomach.^8,9 The leaves and seeds of bitter almond trees can cause cyanide poisoning in large enough amounts.^8,9 While both fresh and wilted leaves contain cyanogenic glycosides, wilted leaves caused by frost, drought, or branches being recently cut are the main source of concern with poisoning.¹⁰ Seeds also contain a cryogenic glycoside that can be toxic. While the almonds we are generally most familiar with, sweet almonds may contain a small amount of cyanide, bitter almonds contain significantly more.¹¹ The nuts you find at the store are generally sweet almonds that have been processed. Some symptoms of cyanide poisoning include convulsions, lack of coordination, muscle weakness, salivation, lethargy, depression, rapid or abnormal pulse, high body temperature, labored breathing, uncoordinated, jerky movements, head pressing, collapse, coma, and death.^8,9,10,12 A classic sign of cyanide poisoning that distinguishes it from nitrite poisoning is bright, cherry-colored blood.^8,9,12 Alternatively, individuals suffering from nitrate poisoning may have dark brown colored blood.⁸

Brassicas: While many sheep nibble on brassicas such as broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, turnips, brussels sprouts, mustards, and rape and are just fine, brassicas do have the potential to cause health issues in sheep. ^{13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22} It is often tolerated in certain amounts in sheep and it is a common agricultural practice to use certain brassica crops as fodder.^13,15,18 However, there have been documented reports and studies of different kinds of brassicas causing toxicity issues in sheep.

Turnip leaves and roots contain oxalates that can cause red blood cells to break down and kidney damage and central nervous system issues, such as paralysis, if the amount they consume isn’t carefully managed.²⁰

Lambs eating rape or kale can develop photosensitivity called “rape scald”. Sheep with white heads and faces are at particular risk of developing swollen ears and head and blisters and scabs. The limbs may be affected as well.^13,20,21

Feeding lambs kale and rape can result in poor growth in smaller quantities and anemia, red urine, and death when fed larger quantities, depending on the levels of SCMO (S-methylcysteine sulfoxide).²¹

Ewes and lambs are susceptible to glucosinolates in brassicas that may interfere with their thyroids and cause goiters.²¹

Brassicas have a good amount of sulfur and molybdenum which can interfere with the body’s ability to absorb copper if sheep consume them for a prolonged period.²⁰
Lambs fed fresh, lush brassicas could develop clostridial enterotoxaemia. However, there are vaccinations that can prevent this.²²

Cabbage has been shown to cause hypothyroidism and goiters in pregnant ewes and lambs. ^13,17

Large amounts of brassicas may cause polioencephalomalacia (PEM), a neurological disease with clinical symptoms of head pressing, convulsions, blindness, circling, loss of coordination, recumbency, involuntary eye movement.¹⁴

Toxicosis can be chronic, developing over a period of time while being fed brassicas or acute, developing quickly after unmanaged access or excessive amounts being consumed.^12,16 Use caution when offering brassicas to sheep residents. Treats are unlikely to cause issues and larger amounts may be okay for some but not others. Play it safe and dole out brassicas with care.

Cassava: Cassava has the potential to cause cyanide poisoning. Ruminants are more susceptible to cyanide poisoning than monogastric animals.²³ In many regions, cassava is an important part of the diet for humans and, in an agricultural context, animals.^23,24,25,26 Different species of animals exploited in agriculture are sometimes given a diet that consists, in part, of cassava (tuber, leaves, peels) that has been processed but is also sometimes fed fresh.^24,25,26 There are a number of ways to process cassava that affects the amount of HCN including heating, drying, fermenting, chopping, grating, peeling, soaking, boiling, grinding, and ensiling.^24,25,26 According to some studies, fresh peels appear to contain the highest levels of toxin.²⁴ Cyanide poisoning through the ingestion of unprocessed or improperly processed cassava can result in acute or chronic poisoning. The type of cassava fed, the amount of consumption, the frequency of consumption, and whether there had been a gradual increase in consumption, can all be factors in the potential poisoning (or not) in sheep. Some symptoms of cyanide poisoning include impaired growth (in chronic cases), convulsions, lack of coordination, restlessness, muscle weakness, salivation, lethargy, depression, rapid or abnormal pulse, high body temperature, labored breathing, uncoordinated, jerky movements, collapse, coma, and death.^8,9,10,26. A classic sign of cyanide poisoning that distinguishes it from nitrite poisoning is bright, cherry-colored blood.^9,10 Take extreme care when considering feeding cassava products to goat residents, especially if you are not fully familiar with the risks and the proper ways to process cassava. Always speak to your veterinarian first.

Cherry Leaves: The leaves, as well as the pits, of cherry trees, can cause cyanide/prussic acid poisoning.^{8,9,10,27,28,29} Ruminants are especially susceptible to cyanide poisoning through the ingestion of plants as the toxin is released during fermentation in the rumen and quickly absorbed into the bloodstream._^9,10,28,29 Both fresh and wilted leaves can be a source of poisoning, though wilted leaves, especially those after a frost, are considered especially dangerous (There are reports of fresh leaves being eaten without incident but better safe than sorry.).^10,28 Living spaces should be free of cherry trees and leaves or pits shouldn’t be fed. Some symptoms of cyanide poisoning include convulsions, lack of coordination, muscle weakness, salivation, lethargy, depression, rapid or abnormal pulse, high body temperature, labored breathing, uncoordinated, jerky movements, head pressing, collapse, coma, and death.^8,9,10,23 A classic sign of cyanide poisoning that distinguishes it from nitrite poisoning is bright, cherry-colored blood.⁸

Chocolate: Chocolate contains theobromine and caffeine which has been shown to be toxic in a number of species.^30,31,32,33 While concentrations of the toxin theobromine are fairly lower in many chocolate products, the darker the chocolate, the more theobromine it contains.^30,31,32 Cocoa bean shells and other chocolate byproducts are sometimes used as supplementation to diets for a number of farmed animal species.^30,31,32 Depending on the amount of theobromine (and caffeine) contained in the waste/byproduct, the type of cocoa/chocolate product (husks, meal, confectionary waste), the percentage of waste/byproduct is included in the overall diet, and even the age of the individual, the diet may prove to be “acceptable” in an agricultural context. Avoiding chocolate shouldn’t be difficult as there are many other more appropriate treats for sheep residents.

Corn Stalks: Corn stalks can contain nitrates (like many plants) but are more likely to be the cause of nitrite poisoning than many other plants though certain plants like sorghum and sudangrass are particularly high risk.³⁴ (Nitrates turn to nitrite through a physiological process, hence nitr-ite poisoning is caused by cornstalks high in nitr-ates.). Stalks of corn contain the highest levels of nitrates in the plant, though the leaves also contain nitrates, as well as the grain itself, just in lower amounts.³⁴ It is a good idea to find out if plants in your region have a high risk of accumulating unhealthy levels of nitrates. Talking to your local extension office can be helpful. Nitrite poisoning is a higher risk if a resident has ingested cornstalks or leaves after they have wilted, which can happen after a bout of cold weather.³⁴ Younger plants generally also have higher concentrations.³⁴ Symptoms of nitrate poisoning may include salivation, staggering, dizziness, rapid breathing, increased heart rate, muscle tremors, weakness, frequent urination, bloat, a bluish tinge to the skin, chocolate brown blood, and death.^35,36

Fruit Pits: Fruits with pits/stones (such as peaches, apricots, cherries, and plums) are often fine to offer to your sheep residents as treats, so long as the pits have been removed. In addition to the risk of larger whole fruits and pits becoming lodged in the digestive tract, the pits contain cyanogenetic glycosides, which can be toxic.^8,9,10,23,27 Additionally, while cherry leaves are infamous for causing cyanide poisoning, the ingestion of the leaves of other stone fruits should be avoided as well until there is more information about their potential toxicity risks, especially after a cold shock in the weather or drought.^8,10 Ingestion of these, especially cracked and broken bits of seeds and pits that release cyanide, can cause Some symptoms of cyanide poisoning include convulsions, lack of coordination, muscle weakness, salivation, lethargy, depression, rapid or abnormal pulse, high body temperature, labored breathing, uncoordinated, jerky movements, head pressing, collapse, coma, and death.^8,9,10,23,27 A classic sign of cyanide poisoning that distinguishes it from nitrite poisoning is bright, cherry-colored blood.⁸

Green Potatoes: Green potatoes (and potato vines), particularly the skins and sprouts “eyes”, contain solanine, which can be poisonous to ruminants.^38,39,40,41 If fed raw and whole, there is also a risk of choking and associated bloat.^39,42 Over ingestion can also cause bloat issues if a large amount of raw potatoes is consumed quickly.^39,42 It can cause serious illness and even death in high enough amounts. Symptoms may include dilated pupils, weakness, trembling, staggering, lack of coordination, depression, recumbency, salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, gastric distress, respiratory distress, coma, and death from suffocation.^38,39,40,42 The most solanine is found just under the skin, so potato peels are best avoided entirely.^39,43 Potatoes that have been in the sun will have increased solanine.^41,42,43 Potatoes also contain chaconine, another chemical that can be toxic to ruminants.³⁹ Solanine is heat stable, meaning just boiling won’t necessarily reduce the solanine, though it has been posited that the toxin leaches into the water from the potato (which should be disposed of), which would reduce the amount in the actual potato as would peeling before boiling.⁴³ Frying is said to do a better job of breaking down solanine in potatoes but fried potatoes aren’t very healthy for goat residents.^40,43 The level of toxic compounds can vary depending on environmental factors like climate and the type of soil it is grown in.⁴⁰ If you decide to offer a bit of potato as a treat, to be safe be sure they are free from green colorations and sprouts “eyes” and are peeled, boiled, the water drained and they are rinsed before offering.

Onions: Sheep might be more resistant to onion poisoning than some other resident species but are still at risk. However, in large enough amounts under the right circumstances, sheep can still develop anemia.^44,45,46,47 Symptoms of onion poisoning may include lack of appetite, staggering, pale mucous membranes, weakness, recumbency, collapse, high heart rate, high respiratory rate, and dark red urine.^44,45,46,47 While it would generally require large amounts of onion consumption to produce these symptoms in sheep and even depend on how frequently and how quickly it was consumed, the amount that will affect individuals can vary and may not be known. Health, reproductive, and age status could all play a factor in the individual’s susceptibility.

Processed Human Food: Processed foods, especially those that are super greasy, salty, or sweet, while not necessarily toxic, aren’t the healthiest option and should be avoided or strictly limited as an occasional treat.

Rhubarb Leaves: Rhubarb contains high amounts of oxalic acid (in the leaves) which could be toxic to sheep if ingested. ^{39,48,49,50,51,52} The stalks contain significantly less oxalic acid than the leaves.^48,49 Possible symptoms of poisoning may include stones in the urinary tract (a particular issue for male neutered sheep) vomiting, diarrhea, bloat, gastric distress, and hypocalcemia (low calcium levels in the blood) which can cause weakness, lethargy, lack of appetite, difficulty moving, and recumbency.^{39,48,49,50,51,52} Possible poisoning depends on a number of factors including whether the individual has gradually been eating rhubarb or other plants containing high amounts of oxalic acid, how quickly they have consumed them, and the overall amount they have consumed.⁵⁰ Factors such as soil composition, weather, region, and type of rhubarb can all affect the levels of oxalic acid.^50,52 Be sure sheep residents don’t have access to rhubarb plants and don’t give leaves as treats.

Salt: While it is important that goats have a healthy level of salt in their diet, there is such a thing as too much and this can cause serious health issues. Salt poisoning can have serious consequences and even be fatal in sheep.^39,53,54 Prevention is key. Salt can result in sheep receiving a normal amount in the diet but a lack of access to adequate water or excessive amounts of salt in the actual diet.^39,53,54 If you suspect salt poisoning, call your veterinarian immediately as soon as possible. Access to unrestricted amounts of water after deprivation can actually cause serious issues. Smaller amounts of water offered over a period of time are safer.^39,54 Ask your vet what the appropriate amount and intervals are in case of salt poisoning. Sheep poisoned by salt may experience symptoms such as increased thirst, dehydration, salivation, dilated pupils, involuntary eye movement, excessive urination, increased heart rate, rapid breathing, diarrhea, bloat, depression, recumbency, lack of coordination, head pressing, seizures, muscle spasms (particularly causing the neck and back to arch, pulling their head back), staggering, collapse, coma, and death, in severe cases.^39,53,54 Be sure sheep residents are getting the correct amount of salt in their diet as too much or too little can have serious consequences. Avoid feeding residents salty treats.

Visibly Moldy Or Rotten Foods: Moldy foods can contain mycotoxins that can cause serious health issues for ruminants.^54,55,56,57 Different mycotoxin poisoning can result in different symptoms, ranging in severity. Sheep may be more resistant to certain mycotoxins than other species, but moldy food should still never be fed. Some of these symptoms can include diarrhea and ruminal stasis, lack of appetite, lack of interest in surroundings, convulsions, reproductive issues, and death.^54,55,56,57

For more information on what you should feed sheep, check out our resource here.

While this list isn’t exhaustive, it can certainly help you keep resident sheep safe, healthy, and happy!

SOURCES: POTENTIALLY TOXIC FOODS

1. Herbicide Poisoning In Animals | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)

2. Chapter 44 – Toxicity of Herbicides | Veterinary Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)

3. Suspected Poisoning Of Domestic Animals By Pesticides | Science Of The Total Environment

4. Guide To Poisonous Plants | Colorado State University (Non-Compassionate Source)

5. Avocado Toxicosis In Animals | The Merck Veterinary Manual

6. Cardiomyopathy Caused By Avocado (Persea Americana Mill) Leaves | Journal Of South African Veterinary Association (Non-Compassionate Source)  

7. Food Hazards | Concepts And Applications In Veterinary Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)  

8. Review On Cyanide Poisoning In Ruminants | Journal Of Biology, Agriculture, And Healthcare (Non-Compassionate Source)  

9. Prussic Acid Poisoning In Livestock | Washington State University Extension (Non-Compassionate Source)

10. Prussic Acid Poisoning Potential In Frosted Forages | Iowa State University (Non-Compassionate Source) 

11. Potential Toxic Levels Of Cyanide In Almonds (Prunus Amygdalus), Apricot Kernels (Prunus Armeniaca), And Almond Syrup | ISRN Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source) 

12. Plant Poisoning Of Small Ruminants | American Association Of Bovine Practitioners Proceedings Of The Annual Conference (Click on the PDF button.) (Non-Compassionate Source)  

13. Forage-Related Cattle Disorders  Brassicas: Be Aware Of The Animal Health Risks | University Of Kentucky College Of Agriculture, Food And Environment Cooperative Extension Service (Non-Compassionate Source)  

14.  Polioencephalomalacia In Ruminants | The Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source) 

15. Bioactive Organosulfur Phytochemicals In Brassica Oleracea Vegetables—A Review | Food And Chemical Toxicology  (Non-Compassionate Source) ??

16. Haemolytic Anaemia In Ruminants Fed Forage Brassicas: A Review | Veterinary Research (Non-Compassionate Source) 

17. The role of free radicals in brassica-induced Anaemia Of Sheep: An ESR Spin Trapping Study | Free Radicals Research Community  (Non-Compassionate Source) 

18. Voluntary Intake, Health And Performance Of Lactating Ewes Fed On Turnips With Or Without Straw Supplement | Animal Science  (Non-Compassionate Source) 

19. Diseases Of The Hematologic, Immunologic, And Lymphatic Systems (Multisystem Diseases) | Sheep, Goat, And Cervid Medicine (Non-Compassionate Source) 

20. Plant Poisonings In Britain And Ireland | Diseases Of Sheep   (Non-Compassionate Source) 

21. Feeding Lambs On Rape And Kale | NADIS Animal Health Skills (Non-Compassionate Source)

22. Brassicas And Animal Health | The Vet Advisor (Non-Compassionate Source)

23.  Review On Cyanide Poisoning In Ruminants | Journal Of Biology, Agriculture And Healthcare (Non-Compassionate Source)

24.  Detoxification Of Cassava Products And Effects Of Residual Toxins On Consuming Animals | The Food And Agriculture Organization (FAO) (Non-Compassionate Source)

25. A Review Of Ruminant Responses To Cassava-Based Diets | Cassava as Livestock Feed in Africa (Non-Compassionate Source)

26. Experimental Poisoning By Cassava Wastewater In Sheep | Livestock Diseases (Contains Pictures Of Sick Sheep) (Non-Compassionate Source)

27. Prunus Spp. Intoxication In Ruminants: A Case In A Goat And Diagnosis By Identification Of Leaf Fragments In Rumen Contents | Journal Of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation (Non-Compassionate Source)

28. Toxic Plants and Small Ruminants: Wild Cherry | Ohio State University, College Of Food Agriculture, And Environmental Sciences  (Non-Compassionate Source)

29. Prunus Poisoning In Horses And Other Livestock | Ontario Ministry Of Agriculture, Food, And Rural Affairs  (Non-Compassionate Source)

30. Theobromine Toxicity And Remediation Of Cocoa By-Products: An Overview | Journal Of Biological Sciences (Non-Compassionate Source)

31. The Effects of Chocolate and Chocolate by-product Consumption on Wild and Domestic Animals | Chocolate In Health And Nutrition (Non-Compassionate Source)  

32. Theobromine As Undesirable Substances In Animal Feed: Scientific Opinion Of The Panel On Contaminants In The Food Chain |  The EFSA Journal (Non-Compassionate Source)  

33. LC-QTOF/MS Untargeted Metabolomics Of Sheep Milk Under Cocoa Husks Enriched Diet | Dairy  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

34. Nitrate Toxicity In Livestock | Oklahoma State University Extension (Non-Compassionate Source)

35. Toxic Wasting Disorders in Sheep | Animals (Non-Compassionate Source)

36. Plant Poisoning of Small Ruminants | Colorado State University  (Non-Compassionate Source)

37. Toxic Plants and the Common Caprine | Cornell College Of Agriculture and Life Sciences

38. Steroid Alkaloids | Cornell College Of Agriculture And Life Sciences (Non-Compassionate Source)  

39. Bloat, Esophageal Disorders, Nightshade Toxicosis | Blackwell’s 5 Minute Veterinary Consult: Ruminants

40. Toxicants That Affect The Autonomic Nervous System (And, In Some Cases, Voluntary Nerves As Well) | Veterinarian Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)

41. Common Poisonous Plants | Cornell University Library (Non-Compassionate Source)

42. Cautions | University Of Nebraska-Lincoln, Institute Of Agriculture And Natural Resources (Non-Compassionate Source)  

43.  Natural Toxicants | The Food And Environment Research Agency

44. Onions | Colorado State University Guide To Poisonous Plants (Non-Compassionate Source)  

45. Heinz Body Anaemia Associated With Onion (Allium Cepa) Toxicosis In A Flock Of Sheep | Comparative Clinical Pathology (Non-Compassionate Source) 

46. Adaptation Of Pregnant Ewes To An Exclusive Onion Diet | Veterinary And Human Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)  

47. Rumen Bacteria Are Involved In The Onset Of Onion-Induced Hemolytic Anemia In Sheep | Journal Of Veterinary Medical Science  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

48. Plants Causing Kidney Failure | A Guide To Plant Poisoning Of Animals In North America

49. Plants Toxic To Livestock- Rhubarb | Cornell College Of Agriculture And Life Sciences

50.  Renal Toxicity | Veterinary Toxicology 

51.  Poisonous Vascular Plants | North Carolina State University  

52. Plant Poisoning Of Livestock In Vermont | UVM Extension (Non-Compassionate Source)

53. Salt Poisoning Outbreak In Sheep In The State Of Para | Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

54. Salt Poisoning | Veterinary Handbook Disease Finder (Non-Compassionate Source)

54. An Experimental Mycotoxicosis In Sheep And Goats Caused By Drechslera Campanulata, A Fungal Pathogen Of Green Oats | The Onderstepoort Journal Of Veterinary Research (Non-Compassionate Source)  

55. Aflatoxicosis | The Merck Veterinary Manual  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

56. Acute And Chronic Disease Associated With Naturally Occurring T-2 Mycotoxicosis In Sheep | Journal Of Comparative Pathology  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

57. Occurrence And Significance Of Mycotoxins In Forage Crops And Silage: A Review | Journal Of The Science Of Food And Agriculture (Non-Compassionate Source)  

Main Text Sources

1.Poisoning of Livestock by Plants | Ontario Ministry Of Agriculture, Food And Rural Affairs (Non-Compassionate Source)

2. Common Weeds Poisonous to Grazing Livestock | Ontario Ministry Of Agriculture, Food And Rural Affairs (Non-Compassionate Source)

3. Common Poisonous Plants | Ohio State University (Non-Compassionate Source)

4. Guide to Poisonous Plants | Colorado State University (Non-Compassionate Source)

5. Protect Your Horses And Livestock From Toxic Plants | Washington State Department Of Agriculture (Non-Compassionate Source)

6. Blue-Green Algae And Livestock | South Dakota State University (Non-Compassionate Source)

7. Sheep Mortalities Associated With The Blue Green Alga: Nodularia Spugima | Australian Veterinary Journal

8. Algal Poisoning Of Animals | The Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)

9. Blister Beetles | North Carolina State University Extension Service (Non-Compassionate Source)

10. Blister Beetles | University of Kentucky College of Agriculture  (Non-Compassionate Source)

11. Overview Of Copper Poisoning | Merck Manual Veterinary Manual

12. Copper Toxicity In Sheep And Goats (Proceedings) | DVM 360  (Non-Compassionate Source)

13. Copper Poisoning In Small Ruminants | Colorado State University (Non-Compassionate Source)

14. Grain Overload, Acidosis, Or Grain Poisoning In Stock | Department Of Primary Industries And Regional Development’s Agriculture And Food (Non-Compassionate Source)

15. Grain Overload In Ruminants | The Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)

16. Pathological Study Of Experimental Lead Poisoning In Sheep |Twenty-sixth Meeting of the European Society Of Veterinary Pathology

17. Effects Of Chronic Lead Exposure On Pregnant Sheep And Their Progeny | Vet Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)

18. Lead – An Emerging Threat To Livestock | Veterinary World (Non-Compassionate Source)

19. Is There Lead In Your Pasture? | The Horse

20. Mycotoxicoses In Domestic Animals | Vet 360 (Non-Compassionate Source)

21. An Experimental Mycotoxicosis In Sheep And Goats Caused By Drechslera Campanulata, A Fungal Pathogen Of Green Oats | The Onderstepoort Journal Of Veterinary Research (Non-Compassionate Source)  

22. Aflatoxicosis | The Merck Veterinary Manual  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

23. Acute And Chronic Disease Associated With Naturally Occurring T-2 Mycotoxicosis In Sheep | Journal Of Comparative Pathology  (Non-Compassionate Source)  

24. Occurrence And Significance Of Mycotoxins In Forage Crops And Silage: A Review | Journal Of The Science Of Food And Agriculture (Non-Compassionate Source)  

25. Herbicide Poisoning In Animals | Merck Veterinary Manual (Non-Compassionate Source)

26. Chapter 44 – Toxicity of Herbicides | Veterinary Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)

27. Suspected Poisoning Of Domestic Animals By Pesticides | Science Of The Total Environment

28. Accidental Selenium Toxicosis In Lambs | Canadian Veterinary Journal (Non-Compassionate Source)

29. Chapter 33 – Selenium | Veterinary Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)

30. Experimental Acute Selenium Intoxication In Lambs | Journal Of Comparative Pathology (Non-Compassionate Source)

31. Toxin Topic: Snakebites And Horses | The Horse (Non-Compassionate Source)

32. Snakebite In Sheep | Veterinary And Human Toxicology (Non-Compassionate Source)

33. First clinical experiences with specific sheep Fab fragments in snake bite. Report of a multicentre study of Vipera berus envenoming | Journal Of Internal Medicine (Non-Compassionate Source)

34. What Is The Impact Of Snakebite Envenoming On Domestic Animals? A Nation-Wide Community-Based Study In Nepal And Cameroon | Toxicon: X (Non-Compassionate Source)

35. Snakebite in domestic animals: First global scoping review | Preventative Veterinary Medicine

36. Clinical and Pathological Observations Associated with Snake Envenomation in Two Sheep | Acta Scientiae Veterinariae (Non-Compassionate Source)

37. Animal-Friendly Barn And Fence Paint For Horse Stalls | Stuff For Pet