Veterinary Review Initiative
This resource has been reviewed for accuracy and clarity by a qualified Doctor of Veterinary Medicine with farmed animalA species or specific breed of animal that is raised by humans for the use of their bodies or what comes from their bodies. sanctuary experience as of August 2024.

Check out more information on our Veterinary Review Initiative here!

Whether you are performing routine health checks, evaluating someone showing signs of concern, or monitoring a sick or vulnerable resident, you may find that it’s helpful (and in some cases even necessary) to determine their body temperature, respiratory rate, and/or heart rate. As a group, these are often referred to as ‘vital signs.’ Checking a resident’s vitals can help you determine if there is a possible issue at hand, and these measurements can be relayed to your veterinarian along with any other signs of concern you have observed to help them determine how to best proceed. Additionally, taking a resident’s vitals can alert you and your veterinarian to emergency situations if you find that an individual’s temperature, respiratory rate, or heart rate is dangerously above or below the normal range.

Just One Piece Of The Puzzle
While taking a resident’s vitals can provide you and your veterinarian with crucial information, it’s important to remember that this is just one piece of the puzzle – just because a resident’s vital signs fall outside of the normal range does not automatically mean they are sick. Of course, vitals that are significantly higher or lower than the normal range could be a sign of a serious issue, but it’s important to recognize that factors other than illness can affect an individual’s vital signs. For example, stress, pain, activity level, and ambient temperature can all have an impact on a resident’s vital signs. Additionally, a resident could be sick while still having normal vitals. Therefore, it’s important to consider these measurements in conjunction with the bigger picture. More importantly, you should always work with your veterinarian when you have concerns about a resident’s health.

While measuring an individual’s body temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate can give you and your veterinarian important information about their health, other information can be equally important, especially when trying to assess whether or not you are dealing with an urgent situation. Depending on the individual’s species and clinical signs, your veterinarian may ask you to assess additional things such as their capillary refill time, mucous membrane color, gut sounds, and/or skin turgor.

In this resource, we’ll discuss how to take the rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate of large mammalian-farmed animal species (horses, donkeys, cowsWhile  "cows" can be defined to refer exclusively to female cattle, at The Open Sanctuary Project we refer to domesticated cattle of all ages and sexes as "cows.", llamas, alpacas, sheep, goats, and pigs). Please refer to our health check resources for species-specific information. While some of the information in this resource may be able to be applied to other species as well, we recommend consulting with your veterinarian for specific guidance.

What About Birds And Smaller Mammals?
Since we cover farmed bird species, like chickens and geeseUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated goose breeds, not wild geese, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource., as well as smaller mammals, like rabbitsUnless explicitly mentioned, we are referring to domesticated rabbit breeds, not wild rabbits, who may have unique needs not covered by this resource. and cavies (guinea pigs), you may be wondering why they are not addressed in this resource. We certainly do not mean to imply that assessing vital signs is only important in larger mammalian species. However, significant differences between mammalian and avian anatomy and physiology can make checking and interpreting avian vital signs more challenging. In regards to smaller mammals, they too can present unique challenges when it comes to assessing certain vitals. As such, we have decided not to include these species in this resource and plan to address them separately.

Body Temperature

Knowing an individual’s body temperature can give you and your veterinarian important information to consider when evaluating their health. Situations where it may be necessary or wise to determine an individual’s body temperature include the following:

• They are showing signs of illness or just aren’t acting like themselves
• They recently underwent surgery and are being monitored for infection
• They are a neonate and require close monitoring for signs of illness
• They currently have an infection or other disease and are under observation

The best way to assess a mammalian sanctuary resident’s body temperature is rectally. You should always have rectal thermometers and lubricant on hand for this reason. Digital thermometers provide readings much faster than glass thermometers, and this can be very helpful if the individual does not appreciate their temperature being taken. A digital thermometer will beep to let you know the reading is complete and will display the numerical reading on its screen. Readings can usually be taken in Fahrenheit or Celsius, and it’s easy to switch between the two, which may happen inadvertently, so be sure to pay attention to the display which will have an F or C to indicate which scale is being used. Some digital thermometers have a rigid tip, but others have a flexible rubber tip which can reduce discomfort and risk of injury, especially in smaller individuals.

Glass thermometers can be used instead of digital thermometers, but these must be used carefully to ensure they do not break. A broken glass thermometer puts residents at risk of injury, and those that contain mercury put residents and personnel at risk of mercury exposure when broken. If you opt for a glass thermometer, make sure everyone on your team is trained to properly use it. To ensure an accurate reading, glass thermometers must be “shaken down” before use (so the fluid in the column is below the lowest number on the scale) and need to be left in the rectum for at least three minutes. 

Regardless of the type of thermometer used, the tip should be coated in lubricant (such as KY Jelly or a similar product) to ensure easy insertion. You’ll want to make sure the individual is either properly restrained or unlikely to move. Even if you feel the individual will not move, be prepared to restrain them as needed. This is especially important when using a glass thermometer, which could fall out and break. When inserting the lubricated thermometer into the individual’s rectum, be gentle! How far you should insert the thermometer depends on the size of the individual. The thermometer should slide in easily. If you meet resistance, do not force the thermometer in.

Even if the individual is restrained, you’ll want to hold on to the thermometer until the reading is complete. Glass thermometers for large animals may come with a string and clip to secure the thermometer to the individual’s hair, but it’s still a good idea to hold onto the thermometer. Never leave a resident unattended while the thermometer is in! Not only could they move or defecate causing the thermometer to fall out and potentially break, but they could also rub their back end against a wall, another resident, etc. which could break the thermometer or cause it to be pushed further into the rectum.

Once you have a reading, you’ll need to compare it to normal ranges (see our reference sheet below). Keep in mind that some individuals may regularly have a body temperature that falls slightly outside of the normal range without being cause for concern. However, an elevated rectal temperature could be also due to a fever (which may indicate an infection or other disease). Additionally, an elevated rectal temperature could be due to stress, recent activity, or a high ambient temperature. For some species, body temperature is also affected by the time of day. Therefore, as mentioned above, it’s important to consider how the individual is doing overall as well as any factors that could affect their body temperature. In some cases, it may be helpful to compare their body temperature to that of a companion of the same species (and ideally someone who was recently engaged in a similar amount of activity). When monitoring an individual’s temperature regularly (for example, daily monitoring of a neonate), doing so at approximately the same time of day is helpful. 

If you are using a glass thermometer, keep in mind that a high reading could be due to not properly shaking down the liquid before use. Shake down the thermometer and start again to determine if your initial reading was accurate. Be sure to contact your veterinarian if a resident has an extremely high body temperature, if they have an elevated temperature and are showing other signs of concern, or if you have reason to believe they are suffering from heat-related illness.

While a high temperature can indicate an issue, so too can one that is too low. However, keep in mind that you might get a falsely low reading for several reasons including not inserting the thermometer far enough into the rectum, not leaving the thermometer in the rectum for an appropriate amount of time, and not making contact between the thermometer and the lining of the rectum (if the thermometer is inserted into feces, this will often result in a falsely low reading). If you get a low reading, it’s a good idea to take their temperature again. Be sure to contact your veterinarian if a resident’s body temperature is significantly below normal or if they have a low body temperature and are showing other signs of concern.

Don’t forget to clean and disinfect the thermometer after use so it’s ready to go for the next time!

Respiratory Rate

Respiratory rate is a measure of how many breaths an individual takes over the course of a minute. Some caregivers regularly assess their residents’ respiratory rates during routine health checks, but other situations where it can be helpful to determine an individual’s respiratory rate include the following:

• They are showing signs of respiratory illness or other signs of concern and you are gathering more information to share with your veterinarian (assessing their respiratory rate can be a crucial piece of information when determining if immediate interventions are necessary)
• They currently have or are recovering from a health condition that impacts their breathing 
• They have been exposed to an infectious disease and monitoring their respiratory rate is part of their ongoing observation

Because respiratory rate increases with activity, it’s best to assess an individual’s respiratory rate while they are at rest. This is known as their resting respiratory rate and is the most accurate way to determine if someone’s respiratory rate is within the normal range. If an individual has recently been active, it’s a good idea to give them at least 10 minutes to settle before counting their respirations. To assess an individual’s respiratory rate, watch their chest movements (ideally without handling or restraining them), counting how many times their chest expands and contracts over one minute. You want to count each paired expansion and contraction as one respiration. 

When assessing an individual’s respiratory rate, be sure to use a device to keep track of the time – estimating the timing won’t give you accurate results. Respiratory rate is calculated based on a one-minute period, but rather than counting respirations for a full minute, you may be able to count respirations for a shorter interval and multiply it accordingly to get the number of respirations per minute. For example, if you count the number of respirations for 15 seconds, you would then multiply the number of respirations by four to determine the number of breaths per minute.  

In addition to activity leading to an increased respiratory rate, other factors can also result in an elevated rate. A big one is stress, and this is why it’s best not to handle or restrain the individual. If you are assessing their respiratory rate and also need to conduct a more thorough evaluation or need to administer medication, it’s best to take their respiratory rate before stressing them with other things. Warm and/or humid weather can also result in an elevated respiratory rate. Even the position the individual is in and how much and how recently they have eaten can have an impact. It can be helpful to compare an individual’s respiratory rate to a companion of the same species who lives with them and is engaged in the same activity to get a sense of whether there is cause for concern or not. However, be aware that an entire group could be suffering from a respiratory infection or could be overheating, so don’t assume that everything is fine simply because everyone has a similarly elevated respiratory rate!

In addition to being a sign of overheating, an elevated respiratory rate could be a sign of a primary respiratory issue or a respiratory issue secondary to another condition (for example, in a ruminant, an elevated respiratory rate could be secondary to bloat). An increased respiratory rate can also be a sign of pain. Be sure to observe individuals for other signs of concern so that you have more information to share with your veterinarian. It’s important to familiarize yourself with signs of respiratory distress in the species you care for. If a resident is showing signs of respiratory distress, this is an emergency, and you should contact your veterinarian immediately.

It’s Not Just About Respiratory Rate!
In addition to assessing an individual’s respiratory rate, other important observations can be made about an individual’s breathing. When observing a resident’s breathing, you should pay attention to the depth of inspiration, respiratory effort, and respiratory pattern, and should make note of any abnormal breathing sounds (for example, wheezing, rattling, or gurgling). By placing your hand in front of their nose, you should be able to feel their exhalations and can check if air is coming out of both nostrils equally. If you have a stethoscope and proper training, you can check for abnormal lung sounds (listening to your residents’ lungs regularly and getting familiar with normal lung sounds will make it easier for you to detect abnormal sounds).

Relaying all of this information, combined with their respiratory rate can give your veterinarian a better idea of what’s going on and whether or not the individual requires immediate interventions. If you’re concerned about an individual’s breathing, it’s sometimes helpful to send a video of the resident to your veterinarian. This is not a substitute for a veterinary exam, but it can give your veterinarian a better sense of what’s going on so they can plan out next steps.

A lower-than-normal respiratory rate might not be cause for concern if the individual appears healthy and their breathing otherwise appears normal (in terms of breathing sounds, inspiration depth, breathing pattern, and respiratory effort), but we always recommend reaching out to your veterinarian if you have concerns. If an individual’s respiratory rate is very low or accompanied by weakness, you should contact your veterinarian immediately. 

Heart Rate

Assessing an individual’s heart rate can be another important piece of information when evaluating their health or when conveying concerns to your veterinarian. Some caregivers take their residents’ heart rate during routine health checks, and this can be a great way to establish a baseline of what is normal for each individual. Other situations where it may be helpful to assess an individual’s heart rate include:

• They are showing signs of concern and you are gathering more information to share with your veterinarian (this can help your veterinarian assess how urgent the situation may be)
• They currently have or are recovering from a health condition and monitoring their heart rate is part of their ongoing observation

For some species, you may be able to detect their heartbeat by placing your hand against their body, behind their front leg, but we recommend investing in a decent stethoscope and using this to determine heart rate. There are many different kinds of stethoscopes, so it may be a good idea to see what your veterinarian recommends based on the species you care for (and what other things you’ll be doing with it, such as listening to lung or gut sounds). Once you have your stethoscope, you’ll need to learn how to use it, which will vary slightly depending on the type you are using (some have a turnable head, for example). One common mistake folks make in the beginning, regardless of the type of stethoscope they’re using, is to put it in their ears incorrectly. If you look at the earpieces, you’ll notice that they are angled (so when they touch, rather than forming a straight line from one side to the other, they form a “V”). To ensure the earpieces align with your ear canals (which will allow you to hear clearly), make sure the earpieces are angled forward, toward your nose, when putting them in your ears.

You’ll have the most success auscultating the heart (or lungs or guts sounds) if you can cut down on background noise. For example, if multiple fans are running, it will likely make your life easier if you turn them off temporarily. Once you’ve made any necessary adjustments and ensured your stethoscope is in correctly and ready to use, you can begin! Start by placing the chest piece behind the individual’s front left leg, pushing forward to get it under the tricep muscle. You may have to slowly move the chest piece around a little bit until you pick up on their heartbeat (which is often described as sounding like “lub-dub”). Heart rate is measured as beats per minute, with each lub-dub counting as one beat. As with respiratory rate, you need to use a device to keep track of time and can listen for a shorter time and multiply accordingly to calculate the number of beats per minute (as described above). 

When first learning how to listen to an individual’s heart, we recommend working with your veterinarian for hands-on training. Not only can they help if you have trouble figuring out where to place the stethoscope or are using the stethoscope incorrectly, but they’ll also be able to talk you through what you’re hearing. After you have taken an individual’s heart rate and shared any observations regarding the sound or pattern of their heartbeat, your veterinarian will be able to listen as well to confirm if your reading and assessment are correct or not. The goal here isn’t to learn to diagnose heart issues on your own, but once you get the hang of listening to the heart and get familiar with normal heart sounds, you may be able to pick up things like murmurs or irregular heartbeats and can bring that to the attention of your veterinarian.

Taking An Individual’s Pulse
If you don’t have a stethoscope, another way to check a resident’s heart rate is to check their pulse. To do this, place your fingers (not your thumb!) over an artery, feeling around until you can detect their pulse. The recommendations regarding which artery to palpate varies by species – you can check in with your veterinarian for specific guidance.

As with other vitals, recent activity can cause the heart rate to be elevated. Therefore, it’s best to assess an individual’s heart rate while they are at rest. If an individual’s heart rate is elevated and you suspect it is due to recent activity, give them 5-10 minutes to rest before reassessing. In addition to activity, stress, fear, and excitement can also result in an elevated heart rate. Therefore, an individual’s heart rate may become elevated due to handling and restraint. Warm ambient temperatures can also cause the heart rate to increase. However, an elevated heart rate can also be the result of pain or disease.

Some individuals may regularly have a lower-than-normal heart rate without being cause for concern (regularly assessing their resting heart rate will help you learn what is normal for each individual). However, a slow heart rate could be due to a serious health issue, especially if accompanied by weakness or other signs of concern. 

Be sure to contact your veterinarian if you have any concerns about a resident’s heart rate/pulse or heart sounds (strength, pattern, etc.), especially if they are showing other signs of concern! 

Download Our Normal Vital Ranges Reference Sheet

To help caregivers keep track of normal body temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate ranges, we’ve created a handy downloadable reference sheet you can print and keep on hand. This reference sheet lists normal rectal temperature, resting respiratory rate, and resting heart rate ranges for cows, goats, sheep, horses, donkeys, pigs, llamas, and alpacas. Because there can be significant differences between normal vitals for a baby and an adult of the same species, we’ve included ranges for both. Please note that these are meant to be general guidelines – some individuals may have vitals that fall outside of these ranges without being cause for concern. As mentioned above, it’s important to pay attention to how the individual is doing overall and to consult with your veterinarian if you have concerns or just aren’t sure what to make of things. 

We also want to point out that different veterinary sources sometimes provide slightly different normal ranges, so don’t be alarmed if the ranges we use differ slightly from what your veterinarian says or other sources you read. Again, these are meant to be used as a general reference, not hard and fast rules. We’ve included our sources in the footnotes, so you can see where each range came from.

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SOURCES:

Taking Your Pet’s Temperature | VCA Animal Hospitals  

Duke’s Physiology Of Domestic Animals, 13th Edition | Willian O’Reece 

How to Take Your Horse’s Vital Signs | Penn State Extension 

Monitoring LivestockAnother term for farmed animals; different regions of the world specify different species of farmed animals as “livestock”. Vital Signs | Virginia Cooperative Extension (Non-Compassionate Source)

Clinical Examination Of Farm AnimalsDomesticated animals that are used by humans either for their body or what comes from their body. Farmed animals have fewer regulations governing their welfare than other species in many countries. | Peter G.G. Jackson And Peter D. Cockcroft (Non-Compassionate Source)

Non-Compassionate Source?
If a source includes the (Non-Compassionate Source) tag, it means that we do not endorse that particular source’s views about animals, even if some of their insights are valuable from a care perspective. See a more detailed explanation here.